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George Perkins Marsh, The Vermont Farmer Who Founded the Environmental Movement

George Perkins Marsh, a little-known Congressman from Vermont, gave birth to the environmental movement in September 1847. On that day he gave a speech to farmers at the Rutland County Agricultural Fair after judging oxen, swine and maple sugar.

In his talk, Marsh previewed his now-forgotten book, Man and Nature, or Physical geography as modified by human action. Modern environmental historians compare it with Darwin’s On the Origin of the Species.

They were the two big books of the 19^th century that demonstrated connections between humans and other forms of life.

View of Woodstock, Vt., from Mount Tom

“It takes a real act of historical imagination to understand just how profoundly Man and Nature reshaped American attitudes toward the environment,” wrote environmental historian William Cronon.

George Perkins Marsh

Marsh ushered in a new way of looking at the world, one that understood humans don’t really dominate nature. He inspired the reforesting of the Northeast. He did it by showing how denuded hills and dammed rivers caused erosion and flooding and depleted fisheries.

In his book, Marsh demonstrated how humans connect with nature in unexpected ways. He described how wetlands increased in North America because of a new Parisian fashion. Beavers were nearly extinct on the continent because of the popularity of beaver hats. But then a Parisian manufacturer came up with silk hats, which quickly became the rage. Demand for beaver fur fell off and the beaver population came back. More beavers meant more dams – and more wetlands.

Perhaps of all the people in the world in the mid-18^th century, George Perkins Marsh was uniquely qualified to connect Parisian fashions with the American environment. He was at once a cosmopolitan world traveler and a Vermont farm boy, a scholar immersed in abstractions and a businessman (although not a very good one).

Mount Tom

He was born March 15, 1801, to a wealthy landowner in Woodstock, Vt. His father owned much of Mount Tom. As a boy, George Perkins Marsh watched the clearing and planting of the hills around Woodstock for pasture and fuel. He noticed the erosion, the increased flooding; later in life, he wrote a report about the depleted fisheries.

George Perkins Marsh

As an adult, he tried his hand at businesses that interfered with the environment: a woolen mill that depended on dammed streams, a marble quarry that cut stone from the earth, a farm with sheep that cropped the grass, a lumber dealership. He made a failed investment in a railroad that stripped the land of trees.

Perkins was more successful at politics. He was elected to the first of thee terms in Congress in 1843, where he helped create the Smithsonian Institution. Later he was appointed minister to the Ottoman Empire. During his five years living in and touring the Middle East he observed how man had made barren the once-lush region. He also sent samples of fish, flora, fauna and rock to his friend Spencer Baird at the Smithsonian Institution.

Man and Nature

In 1864, he wrote Man and Nature with little expectation it would be noticed. He was wrong. It was the Silent Spring of the 19^th century, a book that launched the environmental movement. Man and Nature led to passage of the 1873 Timber Culture Act, which encouraged homesteaders on the Great Plains to plant trees. It laid the groundwork for the creation of Adirondack Park and the Forest Reserve Act of 1891. It also had a profound influence on environmentalists such as John Muir and Gifford Pinchot.

Marsh revised his book several times while serving as a diplomat to the Kingdom of Italy. He spent 21 years in that post, the longest serving chief of ministers in U.S. history.

Today, you can visit his boyhood home in Woodstock at the Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller State Park. You can appreciate his legacy at the Smithsonian Institution – or simply by enjoying the fall colors of the trees in New England.

If you enjoyed this story, you might also enjoy The Birds Best Friend: How Ernest Baynes Saved the Animals and Winnepesaukee Water Wars: Fighting for NH Property Rights in 1859.

We are indebted to George Perkins Marsh: Prophet of Conservation (Weyerhaeuser Environmental Book) by David Lowenthal and William Cronon for this article. This story was updated in 2022.

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The Royal Rooters Win the World Series for the Red Sox With ‘Tessie’

The Boston Red Sox won their first World Series in 1903 with the musical help of a raucous fan club called the Royal Rooters.

Nuf Ced McGreevey, leader of the Royal Rooters. Courtesy Boston Public Library.

A colorful group of sportsmen, gamblers and politicians, they had their own sports bar and their own team souvenirs, probably the first ever.

The bar and the collectibles sprang from the unique genius of Nuf Ced McGreevey, so called because he ended arguments by pounding on the bar and declaring “Nuf Ced.”

Nuf Ced McGreevey

Nuf Ced’s real name was Michael T. McGreevey. Born sometime in the mid-19^th century, he played amateur baseball. He never made it to the major leagues, probably because of his short stature, but he did get rich.

In 1894, he opened a saloon called “Third Base” because patrons stopped there before stealing home. In 1900, Nuf Ced moved the Third Base to 940 Columbus Ave., nearer to the Huntington Avenue Grounds where the Boston Americans – now the Red Sox – played.

Nuf Ced plastered the walls with baseball memorabilia and photographs of his favorite players: Nap Lajoie, Jimmy Collins, Cy Young, Chick Stahl and Buck Freeman. The Third Base attracted politicians, gamblers, businessmen, ballplayers, Tin-Pan Alley stars and diehard fans.

Coach drivers stopped by the Third Base because Nuf Ced fed pickles to their horses. Mayor John F. “Honey Fitz” Fitzgerald, was a regular and a Royal Rooter. So was Joseph “Sport” Sullivan, the gambler who fixed the 1919 World Series. Sullivan was rumored to have won $20,000 on the 1903 Series.

Royal Rooters

Royal Rooter Cheering the Boston Americans on with a Drum

Royal Rooters Cheering the Boston Americans on with a Drum. Courtesy Boston Public Library.

McGreevey led a small army of fanatical fans, widely known as the Royal Rooters. Their colorful antics were catnip to the local press. They didn’t just go to the games, they marched in a parade, behind a hired band as they sang a fight song called Tessie. Outside the ballpark they’d harass the opposing team’s fans. During games, McGreevey would dance an Irish reel on top of the dugout, leading the fans in chants and song. Sometimes a Royal Rooter ended up in jail for running onto the field and beating up an umpire.

McGreevey wasn’t a clown, though. He was extremely knowledgeable about baseball. He also had friends among the baseball stars, respected by fans and players alike. In 1908, he was hired as a coach for the Boston team during spring training. He actually sneaked into a posed team picture of the 1903 Americans and Pittsburgh Pirates just before the final game of the 1903 World Series.

Tessie

During that series, the first ever, Nuf Ced took his Royal Rooters to Pittsburgh by train. The Americans lost two of the first three games at home despite the Royal Rooters’ harassment of the Pirates, especially the great Honus Wagner. In Pittsburgh, they won three of the next four games.

The Royal Rooters were given special seats along the third base line for the 1903 champsionship series.

The Royal Rooters were given special seats along the third base line for the 1903 championship series. Courtesy Boston Public Library.

After Boston won Game 7 in Pittsburgh, Nuf Ced hired a photographer to take a picture of the Royal Rooters and had buttons made of the photo. The Royal Rooters wore them proudly on their return to Boston, the first known team-related trinkets. The Americans clinched the series at home with a win.

Pittsburgh star Tommy Leach said the fans won the game for the Americans because they sang Tessie so loud. “It was a real hum-dinger of a song, but it sort of got on your nerves after a while,” Leach said.

Prohibition

The Royal Rooters continued their exploits throughout the oughts and the teens. In 1916, Nuf Ced moved his bar to Tremont and Ruggles Street.

Third Base Saloon, home of the Royal Rooters. Courtesy Boston Public Library.

In 1920, Prohibition forced Nuf Ced to shut down the Third Base — though Babe Ruth’s sale to the New York Yankees may have had something to do with it as well. He donated his collection to the Boston Public Library, and the last Third Base is now the library’s South End branch.

McGreevey’s reopened (not under the original ownership) in 2008 at 911 Boylston St. The punk band Dropkick Murphys re-recorded a version of Tessie. You can hear it here.

We are indebted for this story to Boston’s Royal Rooters by Peter J. Nash. All photos are from the Boston Public Library.

You may also enjoy this story about the 1914 Miracle Team, the Boston Braves, here. This story about the Royal Rooters was updated in 2023.

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New England Gold Hoax of 1898: Greed Meets Moxie

There is, in fact, gold in seawater. And that is the kernel of truth upon which two men from Martha’s Vineyard would build the greatest financial scandal of 1898, the New England gold hoax.

Prescott Jernegan, gold hoax perpetrator

The two boyhood chums, one with connections and the other with guile and charm, would turn the financial world on its ear in 1898. And they put the name Lubec, Maine, on the tips of people’s tongues as they tried to understand how and why the million-dollar New England gold hoax had occurred.

At its essence the whole episode boiled down to simple greed. But in its details, it’s a fascinating story of lust for money overtaking personal principles. The scam showed how even the crudest of tricks can convince people to see what they desperately want to see.

Prescott Ford Jernegan

The idea behind the swindle probably started with Prescott Ford Jernegan. Born in Edgartown, Mass., Jernegan spent two adventurous years as a toddler, along with his sister Laura, on his father’s whaling ship before settling in to life on land.

Early in life he decided he wanted to be a minister. At 16, he entered Phillips Andover Academy, and at 22 he graduated from Brown College. From there he attended Newton Theological Institution.

Despite his privileged upbringing, by 1896 the 30-year old Rev. Jernegan found himself embittered by the hand life had dealt him. His chosen profession as a minister did not satisfy his idealism.

Minister to the Poor

In 1892 Jernegan served as pastor of the First Baptist Church in Middletown, Conn. Arthur B. Ryan, a well-known jeweler and city councilor, had heard Jernegan preach and brought him to the church. Jernegan then tried to direct the church toward serving the poor, but his efforts went unappreciated.

First Baptist Church of Middletown today

Early in his tenure, he launched a broadside at the Trinity Episcopal Church in town. That church, he declared in a sermon, had turned away a man at the church door because he wore overalls. It shocked the town.

He went on to employ homeless men to work in the church and declared that the pews in the church would be free. He even eschewed a salary, saying he would accept what the people of the congregation thought his work was worth. That arrangement did not last long, and he soon negotiated a salary.

Jernegan’s constant hectoring of the congregation eventually put him on the outs with the church, and he moved on. He preached for a time in Newburyport, Mass., and in DeLand, Fla. His wife and childhood sweetheart, Betsey Evelyn Phinney, returned to Edgartown. When he visited her there in 1896 he was stricken with typhoid fever.

Ragged Edges

His frame of mind was bleak. He had major money worries. Later he would tell a newspaper: “My health had been at times very bad, and my wife was semi-invalid…

“I had always been hanging on to the ragged edges of things—a man of educated tastes, of delicate health, forced to exist on the pittances of a day laborer.

“All my life I had existed on the husks. I had been patronized by illiterate snobs. I had been underpaid, my mind had become embittered by a thousand acts of injustice.”

As he grew stronger, he began telling friends that he had a bizarre dream while in a fevered state. In the dream he witnessed seawater being turned into gold. And so the seeds of the gold hoax were planted.

The Schemer

Interior of A.I. Namm & Sons, 1898. Brooklyn Historical Society

Charles Fisher was, like Jernegan, a sea captain’s son. Also from Edgartown, he and Jernegan were childhood friends until both went on their separate ways.

Fisher would claim that he left the country to serve in the English Army. His military bearing seemed to support this, and on the strength of his personality he procured a job at the A.I. Namm & Son dry goods store in Brooklyn in 1893 as a floorwalker.

During nearly three years at the store, its manager came to view Fisher as a schemer, but a useful one. He would deploy Fisher to look into any suspected cases of employee theft, and invariably Fisher found the truth. He used his style to smooth over disgruntled customers. And though his boss suspected Fisher of dishonesty, he had no proof.

While floorwalkers had no access to cash, they did have the power to approve returns. Soon after hiring Fisher the store noted a spike in returns.

The store manager grew concerned that Fisher was approving returns for items that were never purchased (and possibly never existed), with the proceeds coming back to Fisher through an accomplice. The store changed policy and required verification of all returns. The number of returns brought in by Fisher dropped dramatically.

Essentially a Schemer

“Fisher you must remember was essentially a schemer. I think he regarded the daily round of business here as humdrum and monotonous,” the manager told a newspaper. “He always had schemes in his head and seemed to like the excitement of them. He seemed to be fitted for that sort of thing rather than for the legitimate business which requires plodding, persistence and energy.”

Before Fisher quit in 1897, the store manager noticed two other strange things about Fisher. One, he began getting frequent visits at the store from a private investigator, William Phelan. And two, Fisher frequently disappeared for two or three days at a time, and he never talked about his whereabouts.

Fisher made his last visit to A.I. Namm in early 1898 as a customer. He ordered enough furnishings to outfit a household and had them shipped to Lubec, Maine.

West Quoddy Head Light in Lubec

New England Gold Hoax at Full Speed

By the time Fisher shipped the goods to Lubec in 1898, the gold hoax was well underway. William Phelan, the private investigator, would later tell the story of how the scam started. Phelan eventually walked away from it, but not before helping it get rolling.

In the fall of 1896, Jernegan and Fisher approached Phelan about helping in a business proposition. He was to meet them in Providence and go from there to Niantic, Conn.

Whatever he was or wasn’t, Fisher was definitely a trained diver, and that was key to the plan. Though it sounds preposterous, he and Jernegan had a devililshly simple plan. Jernegan had contacted his old patron from the Middletown church, Arthur Ryan. Ryan, in turn, had contacted businessman A.N. Pierson in Cromwell, Conn.

New England Gold Hoax Illustration, New York Herald

Jernegan planned to persuade the two men to back an interesting new venture – extracting gold from the ocean. He would take them to the end of a pier. They would step inside a shack, and Jernegan would show them his specially-built zinc-lined bucket. He would then invite them to pour mercury that they themselves had brought for the experiment into the bucket. Jernegan would then lower it into the ocean and activate a battery that he said would produce the current needed to extract gold from the ocean water.

While underwater, Fisher would guide himself to the end of a pier using a copper line he and Phelan had laid along the sea bottom. Phelan would manage the line and Fisher would spill out the mercury in the bucket replace it with mercury infused with gold. Then he would return to shore.

When the bucket was hauled to the surface, the mercury was given back to Ryan and Pierson, and they had it independently verified. It contained gold, of course, and Jernegan had his backers.

Electrolytic Marine Salts Co.

Using Jernegan’s additional connections in Newburyport from his time preaching there, the two soon finished forming their company. Arthur Ryan served as president. Pierson and Jernegan made up the board along with William Usher, owner of a shoe factory in Newburyport, and A.P. Sawyer, one-time president of the National Capital Telephone Company, also of Newburyport. The Electrolytic Marine Salts Company was in business.

Phelan backed out of the scheme, he said. He initially had some trouble getting paid his expenses, but after that he said he simply watched and listened for word of the gold hoax as it unfolded.

The Investors Rush In

With offices opening quickly in New York, London and Boston, the Electrolytic Marine Salts Company announced its plans to the world. The papers were quick to spread the news that the company was accepting investors and that it would soon harvest tons of gold from the sea.

The company created elaborate prospectuses to entice investors, and Jernegan relentlessly pursued investors among his former schoolmates and acquaintances.

Gold hoax prospectus

The money poured in, mostly from Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York. The company now had to set up shop and start operations. Looking for a place that would avoid prying eyes, they settled on Lubec, Maine. Its extremely high tides and strong currents, they explained, made it the perfect location. There they leased a grist mill, constructed a series of underwater “accumulators” to harvest the gold, and employed more than 100 men.

In Lubec, Fisher simply repeated his act, slipping under the water and salting the accumulators with gold to be brought to the surface. Then it would be analyzed and shipped to the company’s offices in Boston. As the gold continued to come into Boston, the word spread and more investors were induced to buy shares.

Jernegan and Fisher would use some of the proceeds from the gold to buy more that could be “harvested” and shipped back to Boston. They salted away the rest of the money.

By summer of 1898, the company had taken in nearly $1 million in investor cash. Even counting the costs of the operation the two men were ahead by several hundred thousand dollars. And they planned to continue operations.

Gold Hoax Ends

The gold hoax came to a halt, however, when Phelan sent word that he wanted more money. If he didn’t get it, he said, he would tell what he knew of the company. Jernegan and Fisher didn’t pay, and Phelan made good on his threat, publishing his story in the New York Herald.

By the time investors arrived in Lubec to demand answers about the gold hoax, Jernegan and Fisher had fled. Fisher was never heard from again. Jernegan went to Europe with his wife and son. When contacted there he explained that Fisher had made off with the secret formulas that made the accumulators work. Jernegan said he was chasing down Fisher so he could get the plant back up and operating.

For several months, plant managers in Lubec were so sure of their process that they continued to try to make the machinery work to harvest gold. Before long, however, all activity stopped – except for police inquiries about the gold hoax.

Lubec about a decade after the gold hoax.

Aftermath

A.P. Sawyer of Newburyport probably suffered the most from the gold hoax. An otherwise honest man, he became so despondent about steering friends toward the investment that he died within a week after the scandal broke.

Jernegan’s younger brother Marcus, who he had joined in running the gold hoax was briefly detained. He forfeited all the money in his possession. Jernegan had also sold $800 worth of stock to his sister Laura.

Jernegan obtained good legal advice; his lawyers managed to keep him out of court. He argued that he had taken only his fair share of the proceeds from the gold hoax, and no more, and so could not be charged with embezzlement. And his knowledge of the scheme was not easy to prove. So long as Fisher was missing, Jernegan could claim he was duped.

He traveled from Paris to Austria, and from there, apparently suffering an attack of conscience, sent $85,000 back to the United States to be given to the company’s investors. In his journal, he recalls sending more. In the end backers of the gold hoax were paid 36 cents on the dollar. The money came from company accounts, the funds returned by Jernegan and proceeds from the sale of company assets.

By 1906 Jernegan’s wife had returned to Edgartown, and she divorced him. Jernegan himself spent two years in Washington state before moving to the Philippines. There he became a school teacher and authored several books about the country’s history.

He eventually returned to the United States, living in California and Texas. He had two more marriages, neither stuck, and he returned to Edgartown once to visit his mother. In 1927, he authored the book Man and his God. He died in 1942.

End Notes

This story about the New England Gold Hoax was updated in 2024.

Images: Middletown Baptist Church By Joe Mabel, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19412723. West Quoddy Head Lighthouse, By Michael Trindade Deramo – Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6226492. Maine coast by By Ken Lund – https://www.flickr.com/photos/75683070@N00/68255295/, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=119297303.

The gold hoax was one of several that bamboozled New Englanders. Read about them here.

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Child Labor Exposed: The Legacy of Photographer Lewis Hine

A camera made an improbable weapon against the growing evil of child labor in the early 20th century. Then, children as young as five years old worked long hours in dirty, dangerous canneries and mills in New England.

Lewis Wickes Hine, a former schoolteacher, cleverly faked his way into places where he wasn’t welcome. Then he took photos of scenes that weren’t meant to be seen. He traveled hundreds of thousands of miles, exposing himself to great danger. His exertions ultimately received their reward with a law banning child labor in 1938.

Lewis Hine with Michael McNelis, 8-year-old newsboy. Michael had just recovered from his second attack of pneumonia. He was found selling papers in a rainstorm. Philadelphia, Pa.

He was born in Oshkosh, Wisc., on Sept. 26, 1874, and came late to photography. He was a 30-year-old prep school teacher at the Fieldston School in New York City when he got a bright idea: He would bring his students to Ellis Island to photograph the thousands of immigrants who arrived every day. Over five years he took more than 200 plates. More importantly, though, he realized he could use photography to try to end child labor.

“There are two things I wanted to do. I wanted to show the things that had to be corrected. I wanted to show the things that had to be appreciated,” he said.

Child Labor Committee

In 1908, Hine got a job for the National Child Labor Committee, reformers who fought the growing practice of child labor.

Between 1880 and 1900, the number of children between 5 and 10 working for wages had increased by 50 percent. One in six small children were then mining coal, running spinning machines, selling newspapers on the street or otherwise gainfully employed. They were robbed of an education and a childhood, trapped in a downward spiral of poverty.

Newsies, telegraph messengers and young mill workers were exposed to vice and abused by their employers, their customers and even their parents.

Hartford newsboy Tony Casale, 11, in 1909. He had been selling newspapers for four years, and sometimes until 10 p.m. His boss said his father bit him on the arm for not selling more papers. Said Tony, "Drunken men say bad words to us."

Hartford newsboy Tony Casale, 11, in 1909. He had been selling newspapers for four yers, and sometimes until 10 p.m. His boss said his father bit him on the arm for not selling more papers. Said Tony, “Drunken men say bad words to us.”

Graflax

Over the years, Hine photographed children working in gritty industrial settings that inspired a wave of moral outrage. With a new camera called the Graflex he took photos of child labor throughout New England.

Addie Card, a 10-year-old spinner in the North Pownal [Vt.] Cotton Mill, 1910. Hine described her as ‘Anaemic little spinner.’ Her image appeared on a postage stamp and in a Reebok ad, and she inspired the novel ‘Counting on Grace.’

Hine traveled far beyond the giant textile mills of Lowell and Lawrence, Mass. He went to silk and paper mills in Holyoke, Mass., textile and upholstering plants in Manchester, N.H., a cotton mill in North Pownall, Vt., and cotton mills in Scituate, R.I.

Phoebe Thomas, an 8-year-old Syrian girl, at 6 a.m. She was on her way to work cutting sardines at the Seacoast Canning Co.

He also went to the canneries in Eastport, Maine, where he saw children as young as seven cutting fish with butcher knives. Accidents happened — a lot. “The salt water gits into the cuts and they ache,” said one boy.

One day in August 1911 Hine saw an 8-year-old Syrian girl, Phoebe Thomas, running home from the sardine factory all alone. Her hand and arm were bathed with blood, and she was crying at the top of her voice. She had cut the end of her thumb nearly off, but her boss sent her home alone, because her mother was busy working.

Reluctant Employers

Employers didn’t want their practices exposed, so Hine used subterfuge.

Photo historian Daile Kaplan described how Hine operated:

Nattily dressed in a suit, tie, and hat, Hine the gentleman actor and mimic assumed a variety of personas — including Bible salesman, postcard salesman, and industrial photographer making a record of factory machinery — to gain entrance to the workplace.

Hine might tell a plant manager he worked as an industrial photographer taking pictures of machines. Then at the last minute he would ask if a child laborer could stand near the machine to show its size. He also interviewed mill owners, parents and local officials, pioneering tactics still used by 60 Minutes.

Cigar factory at 205 Atwells Ave. in Providence, R.I. Hine wrote, 205 Atwells Av., Providence, R.I. "Eight year old boy and ten year old girl are stripping. This room is the living, -sleeping-and-working room and adjoins the store. Nov 23, 1912. Very dirty and ill-kept."

Cigar factory. Hine wrote, 205 Atwells Av., Providence, R.I. “Eight year old boy and ten year old girl are stripping. This room is the living, -sleeping-and-working room and adjoins the store. Nov 23, 1912. Very dirty and ill-kept.”

Hine confronted public officials with evidence and asked for a response. He also asked the children about their lives. He told one heartbreaking story about a child laborer who worked in a cannery, so young and beaten down she couldn’t tell him her name.

Russell Freedman, in his book, Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labor, wrote, “At times, he was in real danger, risking physical attack when factory managers realized what he was up to…he put his life on the line in order to record a truthful picture of working children in early twentieth-century America.”

Farm Labor

That picture included child labor in rural New England, such as in Connecticut’s tobacco fields and on Western Massachusetts farms. Hine photographed eight-year-old Jack driving a load of hay and taking care of livestock. He was “a type of child who is being overworked in many rural districts,” wrote Hine.

Rural accident in Western Massachusetts. Rural Accident. Twelve-year old Clinton Stewart and his mowing machine which cut off his hand. See Hine Report, August 1915.

By 1912, the NCLC persuaded Congress to create a United States Children’s Bureau in the Department of Labor and Department of Commerce. The Children’s Bureau also worked closely with the NCLC to investigate abuses of child labor.

Years of political battles followed, until finally in 1938 Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act. The law prohibits any interstate commerce of goods produced by children under the age of 16. President Franklin D. Roosevel t signed it into law on June 25, 1938.

Rejected

A Typical Fisher Boy at “T” Wharf. Boston.

By then, the public had lost interest in Lewis Hine’s work. He died two years later, broke, in Dobbs Ferry, N.Y. His son offered to donate his photographs to the Museum of Modern Art, but MOMA rebuffed him. Today, Hine’s photographs of child labor belong to collections at the Library of Congress and the George Eastman House in Rochester, N.Y.

The National Child Labor Committee Collection at the Library of Congress consists of more than 5,100 photographic prints and 355 glass negatives.

And today a Lewis Hine award goes to people who have done outstanding work in helping young people.

Learn more about the immigrant experience in this new book about the history of the Irish people. Available now from Amazon in paperback or as an ebook. Click here to order.

This story about child labor was updated in 2024. All photos courtesy National Child Labor Committee collection, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division.

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Boston Tong Wars Explode in 1907 Chinatown Massacre

As evening arrived in Boston on August 2, 1907, Chinatown merchants began closing their shops and laundries for the day. Breaking through the mundane clanking and clattering of city life, a firecracker exploded. It was a signal to a crew of 10 thugs – hatchetmen – assembled on tiny Oxford Place to begin the tong wars.

Chinatown in Boston, site of the 1907 tong wars.

After a few short minutes of chaos, punctuated by gunshots and stabbings, the street emptied of people. Left behind were three dead men and many injured, one fatally.

The Chinese tong wars had erupted in a shocking massacre.

Tong Wars

The Boston Police, after making inquiries, developed a theory of the case.

The Hip Sing tong was emerging as a powerful new Chinese gang and stealing territory from the better-established On Leong tong. It tried to recruit members from Boston’s Chinese business community. Facing reluctance, the members of the Hip Sing decided to recruit thugs to carry out a raid. The objective was to demonstrate the need for Hip Sing protection, and to punish some of the On Leong loyalists.

The incident that night became New England’s biggest entry in the history of the tong wars. But it wasn’t ultimately a Boston story. The violence had its roots, oddly enough, in the murky world of New York politics. There, rival tongs had pitted different wings of the New York legal and political establishments against one another.

The tong wars would ultimately slop over into Boston.

The case would eventually reach right to the top. Massachusetts’ industrialist governor and its patrician lieutenant governor would be asked to choose sides: the people of Massachusetts or the Republican powers in New York.

Tong Wars Come North

Boston Police in 1930 in Chinatown post a sign in Chinese warning against starting a Tong War. (Boston Public Library Leslie Jones Collection).

Boston Police in 1930 in Chinatown post a sign in Chinese warning against the tong wars. (Boston Public Library Leslie Jones Collection).

The word tong means “meeting house” or “hall.” Chinese-Americans initially formed tongs as sort of civic associations to protect their members from unfair business practices and discrimination and to promote their own business interests. Out of these, however, grew the criminal tongs of the late 1800s and early 1900s. These secret societies specialized in gambling, prostitution, opium dealing and protection rackets. It was a lucrative and violent business.

The tongs started, and were strongest, in the cities of California where the Chinese population was larger. Chinese immigration to the United States began in earnest in the mid-1800s, as Chinese came to the country seeking work as miners and laborers. Twenty-five thousand Chinese lived in the U.S. by 1851; that number increased to roughly 110,000 by 1890.

As they grew, the immigrant communities established businesses that served both the Chinese community and the Americans. However, the increase in prosperity opened the Chinese to discrimination and criminal harassment by native workers who resented their presence. This situation initially gave rise to the tongs — and to the tong wars.

By 1900, the Chinese population waned after Congress passed several laws that stifled its growth. With few Chinese coming to this country, and many leaving to return home with their savings, the Chinese influx had ended. Except some, of course, wanted to stay. Warry Charles was just such a man.

Warry Charles

At first glance, Warry Charles seemed an odd man to be involved in tong wars. The civic and business aspects of the tongs no doubt would appeal to him. But the criminal ones? The picture was not so clear.

Charles was born in China in 1857 and had come to America via San Francisco and New Orleans as an 11-year-old boy. He was thoroughly Americanized. He attended business school in Nebraska, where he met and married his American wife, Mary Whiting, who came from a prosperous family.

The Charleses moved to New York, and Warry got jobs as a ticket agent for the Santa Fe Railroad and a floorwalker at a department store. He ran a small business selling stoves and hardware.

Charles also had connections to government. He was an official interpreter in the U.S. Customs House, and an officer for the immigration service, enforcing immigration laws among the Chinese arriving in New York.

There are hints, however, that he was also involved in less upstanding pursuits. He ran a poolroom on Darcy Street in New York’s Chinatown. And in 1893, he was arrested for extorting money from Chinese immigrants, threatening to deport them if he wasn’t paid.

The Chinese community accused him of extortion, bribery and using his influence with authorities to push out competition. And there is no doubt he was active in the Hip Sing tong, trying to expand its membership.

What happened in Boston after the Oxford Place massacre resulted from the tong wars in New York.

Gangster Ties

Hip Sing had been started by a flamboyant gangster in direct opposition to On Leong and its longtime leader Tom Lee. On Leong had ingratiated itself with the Tammany political machine, providing information in exchange for police protection.

The Hip Sing tong wanted to shift the balance of power with the help of men like Warry Charles. By 1896, however, Charles’ enemies pressed in on him in New York. After one of them assaulted him, he closed up his pool hall and moved to Boston. However, he left his wife and family behind in New York.

In Boston, he established a laundry that flourished and added several storefronts. And in 1903, with a $400 contribution to open an office, he established a Hip Sing chapter in Boston.

The Hip Sings in Boston

Boston Police examine the latest victim of the tong wars in 1930. Photo courtesy Boston Public Library, Leslie Jones collection.

By the time of the 1907 tong wars in Chinatown, Charles claimed to have curtailed his involvement in Hip Sing. But soon after the killings, police came looking for him.

In rounding up nine of the alleged shooters, police noted at least three carried Warry Charles’ business card. And several of them specifically asked police to contact Charles with news of their arrest.

In New York, where the tong leaders had longstanding relationships with their protectors in government, this may have been standard practice. Perhaps they were letting the authorities know which side they were on in the tong wars.

In Boston, it only raised eyebrows among the police. They began asking around about Warry Charles, and the story they heard was damning.

Suspicion

A series of Chinese-Americans interviewed by police all told very similar stories. Charles, they said, was upset that the Hip Sing was not growing fast enough and he wanted to attack those businessmen reluctant to join. The goal: Frighten them into membership. The result: the tong wars.

Several people gave detailed accounts of Charles’ crusade, including explicit descriptions of money offered in exchange for participating in the attack. Another witness testified that he saw Charles provide the guns to the men involved. Police arrested Charles was arrested and charged with organizing the entire attack.

While the evidence was building, the Hip Sing leader in New York, a man named Mock Duck, took pains to tell the New York press he had retired. He had no involvement in the Boston violence, which he feared would soon spread to New York.

Tong Wars Trial

Back in Boston, a jury made quick work of the case following 33 days of trial. Despite Charles’ flawless English and American mannerisms, he was convicted as the ringleader, with four others, of the Oxford Place massacre. The weight of the evidence against him was overwhelming.

One witness told the jury: “Charles said that he would have to do some killing and make the Chinese businessmen so afraid that all of them would join our society.”

The judge handed down his sentence in March of 1908: Warry Charles would die by electrocution at the Charlestown Prison.

Wife Battles to Save Charles

By now, the Charles story gained an audience. His wealth, in particular, seemed to surprise a society that thought of Chinese as living in ghettos and doing other people’s wash. And his friends, who had stayed mostly quiet during the trial, began stepping up.

Mary Charles, and their son Warren, began a public crusade in support of Charles. Warren, a veteran of the Spanish-American war, was now a police officer in New York. Together they began tapping Warren’s military friends and the Hip Sing political networks in New York to put together a $10,000 defense fund to spring Charles.

And the Hip Sing political machinery sprang into action to help, too. Hip Sing was then providing information to New York’s Parkhurst Commission, a private organization bent on exposing and cleaning up prostitution and gambling in New York.

The On Leongs, meanwhile, were aligned with New York’s district attorney. The records show several cases where the Parkhurst Commission, working with friendly police, would raid On Leong operations. The district attorney, meanwhile, relying on On Leong’s ‘honest’ leader, Tom Lee, would target Hip Sing.

Parkhurst Commission

The point man for the Parkhurst Commission was Frank Moss. A spotlight-seeking criminal lawyer, he led the investigation to free Charles. As appeals and requests for a new trial failed, Charles’s chances for freedom grew slim.

In 1909, three of the men convicted with Charles declined to seek a further stay of execution in hopes of a pardon from the governor. On October 12, they were electrocuted in Charlestown Prison. On Leong members celebrated upon hearing the news.

Charles and another Hip Sing member, Joe Yuen, had made a request for clemency. The governor granted a stay through November so the case could be considered. Charles’ fate now rested in the hands of Massachusetts Gov. Eben Draper and Lt. Gov. Louis Frothingham, who would conduct a hearing on Charles’ request.

While Charles was fortunate that both men were Republicans with political leanings similar to his New York connections, Massachusetts was not known for commuting death sentences. The public had little sympathy for Chinese criminals, even if they were wrongly convicted.

The Final Hearing

Frank Moss took sides in the tong wars.

When Frothingham convened the governor’s council to hear the appeal, Frank Moss took on the task of building the case for Charles. Moss explained that on many occasions in New York Charles had used his Hip Sing connections to gather information about On Leong gambling operations. He said Charles had often provided confidential information that allowed the Parkhurst Commission to break up protected On Leong operations.

When the Boston murders occurred, the On Leong saw a chance to implicate Charles in the tong wars. Working within the Chinese community, they recruited the people who would testify that Charles had orchestrated the massacre.

Witnesses came forward who, only six months earlier, had implicated Charles. Now they said they took money to lie. Most damning, a witness who said he saw Charles providing the hatchet men with guns now said he had made it up.

The bottom line, Moss said, was that Charles’ enemies from New York were getting the Massachusetts’ courts to do their dirty work for them.

When he rested the case, public opinion was divided. The lawyers had not cleared Charles, but they had muddied the waters. Charles’ supporters demanded the governor pardon him.

His enemies said that the governor’s council shouldn’t hear new evidence. It was not a judicial body, and didn’t properly handle witnesses.

In one remarkable passage, one of Charles’ supporters made a showboating statement that he knew who had orchestrated the crime. But he would not name the person.

The council, meanwhile, privately made its own rule under which it intended to operate. It would not recommend pardoning Charles, no matter what. It didn’t intend to stand in place of the jury on deciding guilt or innocence.

So instead, it recommended that Charles’ sentence be commuted to life in prison. Governor Draper agreed, though he carefully noted that he only followed the council’s recommendation.

For his part, Warry Charles expressed disappointment. He had expected a pardon. Still, his supporters insisted, he would fight on for a new trial and parole.

Postscript

The tong wars did not end with Warry Charles. There were several other flare-ups in the years before World War II.

The tongs, in fact, still exist. If you walk through Chinatown (in Boston and elsewhere) and you know how to read Chinese, you will find their addresses. But the bloody tong wars have ended.

Charles never made another bid for freedom. He died in prison in 1915 of natural causes.

If you enjoyed this story about the tong wars, you may also want to read about the New England roots of the Chinese revolution here. This story about the Boston tong wars was updated in 2024.

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NH Senator Convicted of Blackmailing Lester Hunt

A jury convicted Styles Bridges, a U.S. senator from New Hampshire, of attempting to blackmail Wyoming Sen. Lester Hunt. Under the deal, Bridges offered to squelch criminal charges against Lester Hunt’s son if he resigned.

N.H. Senator Styles Bridges (1939)

The conviction occurred in 2016, the crime in 1954. And the jury consisted of an audience at a play built around a mock trial of Styles Bridges, who orchestrated the blackmail attempt of Lester Hunt.

The persecution of Lester Hunt ended in tragedy.

Styles Bridges

It would be nice to be able to forget about historical characters like Styles Bridges. Unfortunately it’s difficult. The official New Hampshire governor’s mansion bears his name, as does a highway and various other taxpayer-purchased facilities.

An export from his home state of Maine, Bridges came to power in 1934 when he won election as governor of New Hampshire. He moved on to the U.S. Senate in 1937, and rose to the rank of chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee.

A favorite of William Loeb, publisher of the Manchester Union Leader, he made his mark as an ally of Wisconsin Sen. Joe McCarthy, who orchestrated his famous red scare and lavender scare. Bridges avidly collected rumors and innuendo about his political enemies — and even his allies.

Bridges is probably best known for the quip that he started out one of the poorest men in the Senate and died a millionaire. Even then, politics was a useful business for a man on the make.

Lester Hunt

Still, his sleazy persecution of Lester Hunt ranks right up there as one of his most notable achievements. The events took place in 1953 and 1954. The Senate was controlled by Democrats by a one-vote margin. McCarthy had ripped through Washington like a tornado, and his antics still played well with the public, though he was losing some steam.

Lester Hunt

Today we understand McCarthy’s moral bankruptcy, but in 1954 he enjoyed the support of a wide spectrum of politicians, among them President Dwight Eisenhower and future presidents John Kennedy and Richard Nixon.

Propaganda cartoon used to fuel Red Scare.

McCarthy could make political stars, so no wonder Bridges wanted to curry favor with him. In 1953, Lester Hunt’s son was arrested in Lafayette Park, across from the White House, on a morals charge. Hard to believe such a thing exists in Washington, but it did.

As a first offense, police charged him with a misdemeanor and asked his father to get his son straightened out. And there the matter stood, until Bridges and Idaho Sen. Herman Welker cooked up a scheme to use the information to get control of the Senate for the Republicans.

Lester Hunt

Lester Hunt, a dentist, won two consecutive terms as governor of Wyoming. He then won election to the U.S. Senate with an overwhelming margin.

A Democrat, he supported low-cost health insurance, the expansion of Social Security and an end to racial segregation in the District of Columbia. He also criticized Joe McCarthy, even sponsoring a bill to let people sue members of Congress for slander.

No wonder the two McCarthy Republicans wanted to undo Lester Hunt.

Bridges and Welker approached Hunt and told him they would have his son prosecuted and publicize the arrest if he didn’t resign. When he refused, they made good on their threat. They bullied the prosecutor, telling him he’d lose his job if he didn’t take the case to trial. And they got friendly newspapers to write about Hunt’s homosexual son and his arrest.

The trial shattered Hunt, and in 1954 he announced he would not seek reelection. He then shot himself in in the head in his Senate office.

Columnist Drew Pearson wrote of the episode:

The incident was one of the lowest types of political pressure this writer has seen in many years.

Author Rodger McDaniel has revived the story in his book, Dying for Joe McCarthy’s Sins, The Suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester Hunt. The story has also been turned into a play.

This story about Lester Hunt was updated in 2022.

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Murder on the Titanic: Rhode Island Survivor Never Forgot

The chance to board the maiden voyage of the RMS Titanic was too great a thrill to pass up for the adventurous young Bertha Mulvihill, and adventure she got. Like all the passengers on the Titanic, the sinking of the vessel gave her a hard look at her own mortality.

More than that, however, it brought her face to face with panic and dishonor, hostility and cowardice and even murder. The tragedy would dampen her adventurous spirit forever. She would from that night on avoid the water, never to sail or even swim again. And her rescue, and the events leading up to it, was a story she would retell for the rest of her life.

Bertha Mulvihill

Mulvihill’s life up until April 11, 1912 had already been an adventure by most standards, and a rather pleasant one at that. She had left her native Ireland as a young woman to live with her aunt Kate in Providence, R.I. After trying different jobs, at 24 she landed a job waitressing at the Perry House in Newport.

She was also engaged to an Englishman, Henry Noon, who had a good job as a master welder at Browne and Sharpe Manufacturing in Providence. Henry gave her three gold treasures: a pocket watch, a bracelet and a cross on a chain.

In the summer of 1911 she travelled on the Lusitania to Westmeath, Ireland, to visit her large family. She stayed through the winter, helping her sister Kitty prepare for her wedding in the spring of 1912. By April, Bertha wanted to go home for her own wedding to Henry. She decided to surprise him and return to Providence, where she would stay with her sister.

Boarding the Titanic at Queenstown

When Bertha heard about the maiden voyage of the Titanic, she didn’t hesitate. She bought a third-class ticket for 7 pounds, 15 shillings (about $1,000 today) to sail from the ship’s last port of call in Queenstown (now Cobh, County Cork). Most of the passengers who embarked with her were third-class Irish immigrants, hoping for a better life in America.

Two of Bertha’s Irish friends boarded with her: Maggie Daly, 30, and her cousin Eugene Daly, a 29-year-old mechanic. Eugene played Erin’s Lament on his uilleann pipes for his fellow third-class passengers as the Titanic sailed from Queenstown. He would later claim $50 for their loss. Salvagers found similar pipes, perhaps his, from the wreck.

Titanic at Southampton docks just before departing

Bertha and Maggie shared a room, sleeping in bunk beds next to the boilers in the lower deck.

What happened next has been told countless times: Capt. Edward Smith plowed through the icy waters 350 miles off the coast of Newfoundland, ignoring warnings about icebergs. Just before midnight the Titanic struck an iceberg on the starboard side. The ship’s bell rang three times.

Panic and Confusion

Bertha was nearly thrown from her bed. Eugene came to check on her and Maggie and found them awake and confused. He urged them to get dressed, and they threw coats over their nightdresses. Bertha grabbed the jewelry Henry gave her, her rosary beads and her prayer book. She, Eugene and Maggie climbed to the deck above them, but they couldn’t get to the outer deck.

“Every time we went up a stair they were locked,” recalled Bertha. The doors would be locked until the upper-class passengers boarded lifeboats. Two-thirds of the first-class passengers survived the sinking of the Titanic, but only a third of the third-class passengers did.

Passengers were shrieking and water was coming in. Bertha, Maggie and Eugene reached the top of a passage and couldn’t get out, so they knelt and prayed in the gangway. Bertha saw a sailor she met on the voyage and cried, “We’re lost!” The sailor told them they were in danger and showed them a way to the outer deck.

When they reached the deck, they saw no boats going off. They went to the second cabin deck. Some of the men from steerage were screaming and fighting to get into the lifeboats,

Bertha told the Providence Journal, “Capt. Smith stood at the head of the passageway. He had a gun in his hand.”

“I’ll Shoot”

Suvrviors aboard a lifeboat from the Titanic.

“Boys,” he said, “you’ve got to do your duty here. It’s the women and children first, and I’ll shoot the first man who jumps into a boat.”

Bertha may have been mistaken about the identity of the officer with a revolver. Many survivors, however, said they heard gunshots fired as the Titanic sank. Eugene later wrote a detailed description of an actual shooting.

According to Eugene, a terrible crowd stood about. “Two men tried to break through and he shot them both. I saw him shoot them. I saw them lying there after they were shot. One seemed to be dead. The other was trying to pull himself up at the side of the deck, but he could not. I tried to get to the boat also, but was afraid I would be shot and stayed back. Afterwards there was another shot and I saw the officer himself lying on the deck. They told me he shot himself, but I did not see him.”

Eugene dived into the water and grabbed onto a collapsible lifeboat. Bertha and Maggie jumped into a lifeboat as it was lowered. Bertha described the leap as a distance of three building stories. She broke her ribs when she landed and other passengers jumped on top of her.

The Longest Night

In the overcrowded lifeboat, Bertha was thirsty, nauseous, frightened, wet, cold and in pain.

She watched the lights of the Titanic as the water crept higher and higher and then went out. As the ship began to go dark, she heard two explosions. Bertha recalled the sinking of the Titanic at 2:30 a.m.

“The vessel quivered and seemed to settle,” she said. “Then she leaned over on the other side a little and slowly sank to her grave. I think I heard the band playing.” The Titanic took with her 1,522 lives.

How the Titanic sank. Sketch by L.P. Skidmore on board Carpathia

From the boat she saw Margaret Rice. Margaret, a woman from her hometown in Ireland, stood on the deck of the Titanic, doomed to go down with the ship along with her four boys clinging to her skirts.

The Evil Ice Cake

All through the night Bertha watched as a large ice cake drifted back and forth, irritating her every time it bumped into the lifeboat. According to the Encyclopedia Titanica, she noticed the ice cake that kept ramming the side of the boat. As the night passed, it annoyed her more and more.

The ice cake seemed to follow them, and always hit the lifeboat just below Bertha.

Through the cold hours she came to view the ice cake as some sort of evil living entity taunting her. … Finally just before dawn a smaller “ice cake” floated up and it came between the bigger “evil” ice cake and the lifeboat just as the bigger one was about to make another assault. When the smaller ice cake blocked the bigger one, Miss Mulvihill began to laugh out loud uncontrollably because her enemy had been thwarted.

She later realized she’d spent much of that horrible night playing a mind game with ice cakes. That way, she could ignore the tragedy, the hunger, the cold and a couple of broken ribs.

Rescue

Dawn had just started to break when she saw the lights of the RMS Carpathia way off in the distance.

“I spoke to the nearest sailor about it and asked if it possibly could be a vessel coming to us,” she later told an interviewer. “He said it must be a ship’s light but someone spoke up and said it probably was a boat’s light.

“Then two big green lights broke through the mist above it, and we knew it was a ship coming to the rescue. We cheered and cheered. Some cried. I just sat still and offered up a little prayer and (said to) the blessed mother that if I survived I would name my firstborn child Mary, which I did.”

London newsboy Ned Parfett with news of the disaster

Three days later the Carpathia landed in New York with the 705 Titanic survivors. Henry saw his fiancee’s name on the passenger list in the newspaper. He and Ted Norton, Bertha’s brother-in-law, boarded a train to New York and made their way through the crowds at the dock.

Officials told Bertha and the other Titanic survivors they would have to go to the hospital. Despite her broken ribs, Bertha sneaked away and hid among the luggage. Then she slipped off the vessel and got lost in the crowd. Finally she spotted Henry and crept up behind him, covered his eyes with her hands and said, “Guess who?”

A man on the dock gave her a felt hat, now displayed in a museum in Ireland. Another man gave up his berth on the crowded train to Providence so Bertha could sleep.

Home, Sweet Home

At home she found herself a celebrity, giving interviews to newspaper reporters about her ordeal on the Titanic. She and Henry married in August, four months after her return. A crowd gathered outside her house, and she climbed out a back window to escape them, tearing her veil on a rosebush.

From all accounts, Bertha lived a good life. She and Henry had five children, four of whom survived to adulthood. They lived on Chalkstone Avenue in Providence, then moved to a home on Wyndham Avenue in 1928. Bertha created beautiful gardens around her home.

Base of the World War I monument in Memorial Square, Providence. Photo courtesy LiBbrary of Congress.

Henry worked setting the print on large bronze plaques on statues and monuments. You can see Henry’s work on the plate on the World War I monument in Providence.

Eugene Daly survived and moved to New York City. He sent a postcard to Bertha, inspiring speculation among Titanic junkies that he had a crush on her. “Rem. me to be ever you friend,” he wrote.

Henry died in 1945. Bertha died on Oct. 15, 1959, and lies buried at St Francis Cemetery, Pawtucket, R.I.

We are indebted to Hidden History of Rhode Island by Glen Laxton and Encyclopedia Titanica. This story about the Titanic was updated in 2024. Images: Feature image of Titanic By Teufelbeutel – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17655915.

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Sandwich, Mass., in 1774 – Setting the Battle Lines for Revolution

To get an idea of how intense the feuding between the British loyalists and the Colonial rebels was in 1774 in New England, you could spend a few hours scouring the history books at the library. Or you could go down to Cape Cod and get lunch and a beer in Sandwich, Mass., at the Dan’l Webster Inn, once the site of the Fessenden Tavern. From there, you could walk the less-than-a-quarter-mile to the old Newcomb Tavern. In 1774, that walk would have taken you directly from rebel territory into loyalist territory. And on the way you could imagine the events of October 10 of that year.

On that day in Sandwich, a mob dragged six of the town’s most well-known men to the town green and forced them on to a scaffold.

Nathaniel Freeman

Days earlier, the six men had attacked a brash, 33-year-old critic of British rule. Now the crowd seemed poised to exact revenge. A judge had already ordered them fined for the assault, but the the rabble demanded more. The attackers were ordered to condemn their own actions, apologize profusely and declare themselves cowards.

The choice appeared clear. Stand up for the British Crown and take the consequences, or grovel. All six men caved. Such was the weakness of support for British rule in 1774 Massachusetts.

Sandwich, Mass., Divided

If anyone had any doubt that Britain was losing its grip on the American colonies, their eyes should have been opened by the public shaming of Benjamin Bourn, John Jennings, Nehemiah Webb, Samuel Smith, Thomas Smith and Samuel Dillingham. Those names are still familiar in Sandwich today.

Nathaniel Freeman, the victim of the attack, would play a significant role in the revolution gestating in town like Sandwich. He was an unlikely man for the crowd to rally around. Freeman, a young doctor, had a reputation as an outspoken Whig and a blowhard.

By 1774, the old system of colonial rule had stalled out in America. Young men looking to rise up in the world found too few rewards to go around.

The issue of British rule divided Sandwich, along with most of America. On the Tory side stood the militant supporters of the king, as well as moderates who believed in British rule, but had some grievances with their treatment.

The Whigs also included a large moderate group. These men and women believed in Whig principles, but feared provoking England. But the Whig extremists, like Freeman younger and with less to lose, pushed the country toward open confrontation with Britain.

Even families had divided loyalties. And in a small town like Sandwich, no one could avoid political debate, especially in the taverns.

The Taverns of Sandwich, Mass.

The Newcomb Tavern, a Tory stronghold, dates to 1693. John Newcomb ran it until his death. Then his widow Bathsheba married Timothy Ruggles, a prominent royalist who would later flee the colonies.

Ruggles had left Sandwich long before 1774 to settle a large land grant in western Massachusetts, and the ownership of the tavern passed to John Newcomb, Jr., also a royalist.

Newcomb Tavern in Sandwich, Mass., today

Less than half a mile away stood the Fessenden Tavern, next to the current Dan’l Webster Inn. Its proprietor, Benjamin Fessenden, was a rebel. He later served on the town’s Committee of Correspondence, the rebels’ shadow government that coordinated the colonies’ activities. Rebels gathered at the Fessenden to make their plans.

The East India Company

By 1774, the debate had turned bitter. In that year, England insisted on propping up the interests of the British East India Company. A collection of wealthy merchants owned it for the purpose of exploiting India’s resources.

Working hand in glove with the English government, the company found it excruciatingly expensive to maintain control over India. The British Parliament came up with a plan to help out this well-connected company while not directly tapping the public till. It exempted the East India Company from paying tax on the tea it exported to the American colonies.

Company portrait of an officer of the East India Company

They wanted to steer customers to the now-cheaper tea of the East India Company and away from competitors. And when the competitors did manage to sell tea, a percentage of their sales would flow through to the government in the form of taxes.

The colonists had seen this taxation strategy before. It gave a competitive advantage to those businesses with the best political connections. But by then the game was essentially up in the colonies.

As an economic strategy, it worked — somewhat at least — in the early days. Colonists could be rewarded with land in return for their labor and consumption of preferred British goods. The local merchants – hand-picked to represent the large companies—could prosper and reliably support the Crown.

But as desirable land grew scarcer and the merchant classes grew larger, more people depended on commerce for their living. As a result, they had less willingness to prop up British businesses at the expense of their own. From this anger grew the Boston Tea Party in December of 1773.

The Boston Tea Party

Provocations

Parliament responded swiftly to the Tea Party in 1774. It ordered the Port of Boston closed and stripped local governments of their power to elect or appoint local officials. Parliament also provided that Britain could remove people accused of a crime to England for trial rather than have them tried in America.

These provocations outraged the young men of Sandwich, Mass. While the older, more settled families might prefer to avoid confronting the King, the younger generation of Whigs, along with some of their more idealistic elders, wanted to fight.

In Sandwich, these hotheads elected Nathaniel Freeman as one of their leaders. He then proved an effective, if abrasive, choice.

In September, the town created a Body of the People to direct the protest. This quasi-legislative body put order to the anger and directed Freeman and others to oppose Britain more directly. In a well-orchestrated bit of political theater, Freeman and a group of at least several hundred supporters took to the steps of the Barnstable Courthouse and blockaded the judge from entering. They declared they were preventing the courts from enforcing British tyranny.

Though not the first courthouse blockaded by protesters, it was an early example of direct action against Britain. The rebels were jubilant. On their way home, they accosted a peddler and demanded he give up any tea he wanted to sell. Finally persuaded that he had none, the rebels went on their way. Upon returning to Sandwich, however, they discovered the loyalists had taken down their liberty pole, erected as a symbol of opposition. (The liberty pole was on Main Street near what is now the Sandwich Public Library.)

Retaliation

It didn’t take long to arrest the offenders, as the usual suspects were easy enough to identify. The rebel faction hauled them to site of the liberty pole and forced them to confess their crimes. Officers in the militia who participated in the event had to resign their commissions and pay damages for the pole.

This insult to the Tories, however, would not go unanswered. They fastened their anger on Freeman and devised a plan.

After several days, the Tories sent word to Freeman that a friend of his needed medical care. Though he suspected danger, he ventured out to visit his friend past the Newcomb Tavern. Upon his return, a group of Tories set on him. Using first a blade hidden in his cane and, when the blade broke, the cane itself, Freeman fought off as many attackers as he could. In the end, however, his attackers outnumbered him. Falling to the ground, they continued to beat him, inflicting a wound to his head that scarred him for life.

Fessenden Tavern

Again, as in the case of the liberty pole, the criminals were easy to find. And the local judge adjudicated their case the next day, fining them and sending them home.

The attack on Freeman was hardly the first such skirmish in Sandwich. Previously, well-connected men had attacked others for their loyalties, but they were lightly punished because of their status. In the case of Freeman, they may have thought they were entitled to the coddling that others had received. They were wrong. The rebels decided that the court’s ruling was insufficient, and they dragged the six men to the scaffold where they faced their humiliation.

The message was clear. The six men might just as easily have been hanged. It was a dangerous time to be a Tory in Sandwich, Mass., and getting more dangerous every day.

Aftermath

Nathaniel Freeman went on to greater exploits during the Revolution itself. In 1775 he was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives. He served in the Massachusetts militia, becoming a brigadier general by 1781, and led troops in Rhode Island. He fathered 20 children, one of whom went on to represent Massachusetts in the U.S. House of Representatives.

He never stopped his outspoken pursuit of liberty, taking part in notable feuds with both Tories and moderate Whigs. And it appears he settled several scores with his attackers. As a member of the Committee of Correspondence, he investigated local loyalists. As a legislator he enacted the legislation in 1778 that banished a host of notable Tories from the commonwealth. Of his six attackers, Nehemiah Webb was banished and John Jennings went to prison for disaffection to the popular cause.

Though he had tangled with several Bourns, and several were expelled from the colony, Benjamin Bourn, the ringleader of the attack, apparently remained in Sandwich.

Not a Meek Man

Freeman’s prickly reputation remained intact long after his death. Though his service to the country was appreciated, Amos Otis, in writing his Genealogical Notes of Barnstable Families, recalled Freeman. He described him as “a man of talent, very decided in his opinions, and impetuous in action. Like all men of such a temperament, he made many enemies. The Tories denounced him, in the bitterest of bitter terms. These denunciations never affected his reputation as a man or a patriot, but other causes did. He was not a meek man. He would not tolerate the least opposition, and consequently made many personal enemies. Among the aged who knew him, few speak in his praise.”

Nathaniel Freeman is buried in Old Town Cemetery, just a stone’s throw from the Newcomb Tavern on Grove Street.

This story about Sandwich, Mass., in the Revolution was updated in 2022.

In addition to sources identified in the article, this post owes much to Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution, Lorenzo Sabine, and The History of Cape Cod: The Annals of Barnstable County, and of its Several Towns, Frederick Freeman.

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John Cheever: Reluctant New Dealer on the Way to Fame

John Cheever, the sadly elegant chronicler of New England WASPdom, spent a year working for Franklin Roosevelt’s Works Progress Administration. He spent the next 40 years trying to forget about it.

John Cheever

Cheever belonged to a group that survived the Great Depression as employees of the Federal Writers’ Project. They put together the American Guide Series of books. Some, like Cheever, would go on to become America’s most important 20^th century writers.

Cheever claimed he couldn’t stand “twisting into order the sentences written by some incredibly lazy bastards.” Harsh words for a staff that included Saul Bellow, Kenneth Patchen, Ralph Ellison, Nelson Algren, Studs Terkel and Zora Neale Hurston.

The real reason he hated the job was his shame at going on relief. His once-prosperous Massachusetts family had been ruined financially. “Poverty depressed him,” wrote his daughter Susan.

From Prosperity to Poverty

Cheever, born in 1912, was descended from an old Yankee family. Expectations for a life made easy by a trust fund weren’t out of the question. For most of his childhood he lived in an 11-room Victorian house in the best neighborhood in Quincy, Mass. He claimed his father owned a shoe factory, which is doubtful; more likely, he invested the family’s wealth in the company and succeeded selling shoes to retailers.

New England’s shoe industry was moving south, though, and his father lost his job. His mother opened a small gift shop in downtown Quincy, which her son called “an abysmal humiliation.” His parents separated.

Cheever’s writing would reveal a keen sense of what his old New England family had lost. He lovingly bathed his prose in details such as the polished silver, the fragrant linen, the cocktails on the terrace and the sound of someone rolling the tennis court. Cheever set his stories in boarding schools, country clubs and summer cottages on the sea. He peopled them with headmasters and shipyard executives, cooks and gardeners, lawyers and ladies who wouldn’t allow beer cans on the dinner table. Like F. Scott Fitzgerald, he romanticized wealth while exposing the corruption behind it.

John Cheever, Dropout

Young Cheever dropped out of high school after he won a short story contest sponsored by the Boston Herald. At 20, the last of his father’s money disappeared and the family lost its house to foreclosure. Cheever moved into a Beacon Hill apartment with his older brother, but soon decided to get out of town. For the next few years he tried to make a go of it as a writer, dividing his time between Yaddo, the writer’s colony in Saratoga Springs, Manhattan, Quincy and Lake George, N.Y., where he worked as a caretaker.

By 1938 he was broke, living in a six-by-eight furnished room in New York’s West Village and subsisting on stale bread, buttermilk and raisins. He wrote an elegy to New England’s economic decline, which had affected him so personally. Scott Donaldson in his biography quotes a book review Cheever wrote in The New Republic: “For the glorious seaboard of the China trade means to most of us now a four-way turnpike and a few brilliant old women and the main stem girls in Portland and empty harbors and fugitive mill towns and the smell of the tourist camps and a cretin at the gas station.”

No Gravy for Her

WPA Guide

Cheever accepted a $50-a-week job at the Federal Writers’ Project, part of the New Deal’s Works Progress Administration. From 1935 to 1939, the Project employed about 5,000 people a year as writers, editors and information gatherers. Its purpose was to present a vision of America showing the people, history and culture of each state.

The job meant Cheever had to move to Washington, where he rented a room in a boardinghouse and dined with fellow government employees. One woman at the table made it a point to criticize the WPA. Cheever listened in silence and pretended to be deaf when she asked him to pass the gravy.

He hated Washington: the dreary bureaucrats, the Southern accents and the nakedness of the social climbing. He later included a character in his novel The Wapshot Chronicle who kept a chart of his social progress. It displayed his 18 dinners in Georgetown, with his hosts listed and graded according to their importance.

The New York City Guide

In November Cheever agreed to help finish The New York City Guide, which meant returning to the Lower West Side. His coworkers included Richard Wright, who would later write Native Son, and Beat poet Kenneth Patchen. Cheever wore button-down shirts, a gray flannel suit and affected a patrician accent.

Happy to be back in New York, Cheever combed the city, observing the night workers returning home, the bums on abandoned piers, waitresses at Child’s, tourists aboard the Staten Island Ferry. His careful studies of humanity on the Lower West Side would find their way into The New York City Guide and into his later fiction.

He was unsettled, though, by the controversies swirling around the New York office. The original director was a one-legged poet named Orrick Johns, whose appetite for liquor and sex got him into trouble. One night, he was steering a pretty employee toward his apartment for a tryst when her boyfriend encountered them. The boyfriend knocked him out cold, poured brandy on his wooden leg and set it on fire.

The New York office employed a few Communists, which attracted the attention of Congressman Martin Dies of Texas, chairman of the House Committee on Un-American Activities. Cheever’s return to New York coincided with the Dies Committee’s attacks on the Writers’ Project.

By May 1939, the New York Guide was finished, and Cheever quit after one year on the job.

1958 National Book Award winner

Short Commute

Cheever wiped the Federal Writers’ Project from his memory after he left, according to Donaldson. His Republican parents were probably ashamed of their son going on the dole, and he was probably ashamed of it too. In 1980 he ran into Jim McGraw, a colleague from the Project he hadn’t seen in 40 years. McGraw said it was a long time since he had seen him since the Writers’ Project. Cheever’s response: “I don’t want to talk about it.”

In 1946, married and with a young daughter, Cheever was living in a New York City apartment building near Sutton Place. He could barely afford it. Every weekday morning he put on his good suit and hat and rode down the elevator with the other men in the building. Except Cheever went to the basement, stripped to his underwear, and typed his stories on a makeshift desk. At the end of the workday, he put his suit and hat on and rode back up in the elevator.

Working for the Federal Writer’s Project must have been like getting caught in his underwear.

What Happened Next

Cheever would go on to write short stories for the New Yorker during the magazine’s golden age. He won recognition as one of the most important short story writers of the 20^th century. Critics called him the “Chekhov of the Suburbs.” He is credited with capturing the suburban ennui that inspired Ordinary People, American Beauty and Mad Men. It’s no accident that Ossining, N.Y., was the home of Don and Betty Draper; it’s where Cheever lived until his death in 1982.

In 1995, The New York Times called The New York City Guide “one of the ten best books ever published about New York.”

We are indebted to Scott Donaldson’s John Cheever: A Biography, and David A. Taylor’s Soul of a People: The WPA Writers’ Project and, of course, to The Stories of John Cheever. This story was updated in 2022.

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George Washington’s Submarine: The Turtle, Made in Connecticut

New York Harbor — September 6, 1776, 11 p.m. At the foot of Whitehall Street in New York City, where the Staten Island Ferry departs the city today, two whaleboats slipped silently into the water under a moonless sky. Thus they launched the first military mission ever undertaken by a submarine. It was called the Turtle.

One of the most lethal and effective weapons of modern war started out that night as a wooden keg that looked like two huge turtle shells strapped together. And that’s what people called it: the American Turtle.

The 1st Turtle Mission

With only a few hours of experience navigating the submarine, the one-man captain/crew inside prepared for a preposterous mission. Ezra Lee, of Lyme, Conn., was to submerge the vessel under the water using the same basic water ballast system used today.

Once submerged in his airtight cocoon, he planned to take the submarine four miles into the harbor. He would use a propulsion system that consisted of oars and a treadle-powered screw propeller mounted on the bow of the ship. Then he would maneuver the tiny vessel aside the 64-gun frigate H.M.S. Eagle.

Nearly hemmed in on Manhattan, Continental Army Commander-in-Chief George Washington hoped the destruction of the Eagle, Admiral Richard Howe’s flagship, would help him hold the city.

The plan was straightforward. Using a screw that could be activated from inside the submarine, Lee would attach an explosive device and timer to the hull of the ship, pedal away and watch the ship explode.

On the night of the planned attack, the two whaleboats towed the American Turtle as near to the target as the men dared. With the help of the ship’s inventor David Bushnell, Lee sealed himself inside, flooded the ballast chamber and descended beneath the surface. He found the currents stronger than he expected. It would take two-and-a-half hours before he reached the Eagle, undetected.

The Science of Warfare

1800s Sketch of the American Turtle

The idea of the Turtle was inspired by another discovery that Bushnell witnessed while a student at Yale. A group of scientists working with black powder found they could successfully detonate it under water. The men immediately understood the applications for this knowledge.

With war breaking out in 1775, Bushnell set about building a submarine to attack the British ships then blockading Boston Harbor. Working at shipyards near his home in Saybrook, Conn., Bushnell began perfecting the mechanics behind his boat. In 1775 or 1776, Bushnell approached George Washington with his plan.

Washington funded the development of the vessel and provided material support. He would later recount, however, that before the attack on the Eagle, he had his doubts.

Washington’s Doubts

“Although I wanted faith myself, I furnished him with money, and other aids to carry it into execution,“ Washington later wrote of the Turtle. “I then thought, and still think, that it was an effort of genius; but that a combination of too many things were requisite, to expect much success from the enterprise against an enemy, who are always upon guard.”

Though Bushnell tried to keep the device secret, the people of Lyme and Saybrook knew of them.

Loyalist sympathizers informed the British Navy about the development of the Turtle, though they had few specifics as to Bushnell’s progress.

By the time the Turtle was operational, 1775 had turned into 1776. The British Navy had been expelled from Boston and sailed to New York Harbor, where it moored in the North River. Bushnell changed his target to New York.

Technological Marvel

As Lee cranked his way through the waters of New York Harbor, he controlled an ingenious craft. Just seven feet long and six feet high, the submarine consisted of hollowed-out oak banded together with steel. It was sealed with cork and pitch, and topped with a brass cap fitted with an air exchange so fresh air could be drawn inside while the submarine was near the surface.

The brass cap – a precursor to the modern conning tower — had glass portals so the pilot could watch where he was going while on the surface. Once submerged, the pilot would use a barometer to determine his depth and a lead sounder attached to a cord to sense the sea bottom. He also used a compass illuminated by foxfire, produced in certain decaying fungus. With a pump to draw in and expel ballast water, the craft could raise and lower itself to whatever depth the pilot chose.

The Turtle Had Firepower

The weaponry was no less complex. The Turtle carried three bombs, each with a timing mechanism developed by Bushnell and his colleagues. One was set to go off six hours after being armed, one eight hours after arming and the third 12 hours. The sub was outfitted with a screw that was to be augured into the side of the target vessel. The explosives, carried on the outside of the submarine, could be detached from the sub and attached to the vessel by hanging them on the screw. The action of detaching them from the submarine would initiate the timers.

Benjamin Franklin, who consulted on the project, concluded that the explosives contained three times as much powder as needed to destroy the largest ship afloat.

Using a system of oars rigged to the top of the submarine and the treadle-powered prop, the submarine could reach three knots. Armed and ready, Lee had propelled himself next to the unsuspecting Eagle.

Change of Plans

Portrait of Ezra Lee

Before Lee even entered the Turtle, the mission had already encountered a huge setback. Bushnell’s brother had originally been the designated pilot of the ship. He had made extensive training runs and used the intricate controls skillfully. Shortly before the mission, however, he fell ill – too ill to manage the exertions of powering the submarine.

Lee, who signed on to support the mission, was tapped to fill in just a few days earlier. He had little chance to train, but Bushnell – already exasperated with delays – wanted to wait no longer.

So, with light already showing in the sky, Lee arrived at the Eagle early in the morning of Sept. 7 after his two-and-a half hour journey underwater. He wasted no time in getting to work setting the explosives as he had practiced. But neither he nor Bushnell had anticipated the hull of the Eagle: It was sheathed in copper. The screws on the Turtle could not penetrate the hull.

After two tries, Lee, undoubtedly exhausted, decided he had to retreat. Making his way back across the harbor in the lightening sky, however, British officers observed him and put a boat in the water to chase him down.

The Great Explosion

With Lee pedaling and paddling furiously, the British gave pursuit. Fearing his capture, Lee released the charged explosives into the water in hopes of inflicting at least some damage. With his navigation equipment failing, Lee needed to keep surfacing to set his course.

The British grew suspicious of the odd craft they were pursuing. Suspecting they were being led into some sort of trap, they turned back. Lee was able to signal his comrades, who towed him back to land.

The charges Lee had set loose later exploded, sending columns of water surging into the sky. Franklin was correct in his estimation. The magnitude of the explosion astounded the British. As a precaution, they relocated their fleet outside the mouth of the harbor. And the first military attack by a submarine was in the history books.

The Turtle Sinks

The Americans tried two more times to use the Turtle, unsuccessfully. The British then sank the sub, though not in the water. They destroyed a vessel that carried it. Bushnell recovered it, but he attempted no more missions.

He turned his attention to developing mines that could be deployed in waterways. And he took part in the siege at Yorktown as a captain in the Corps of Sappers and Miners.

Lee went on to fight with Washington’s army in Trenton, Monmouth and Brandywine. At Brandywine, according to one story, the British shot away his sword handle and several balls penetrated his coat. He returned to Connecticut after the war and died in 1821 in Old Lyme.

A Curious Ending

Bushnell had a more curious ending. Following the war, he travelled to France. He attempted for many years to find backing for his submarine with the hope of improving it. But people viewed the submarine, at that time, as too experimental and not a likely success. Some even ridiculed the idea.

Modern replica of the American Turtle, George Washington’s submarine.

Frustrated by failure and low on money, Bushnell changed his name to Bush and moved to Georgia around 1795. A classmate helped him win a position as a schoolmaster, and he settled in Warrenton and practiced as a physician. For 40 years he lived there, his whereabouts unknown in Connecticut. He was only discovered upon his death when his will directed that a search should be made in Old Saybrook for any heirs.

The Turtle itself ended its life as scrap, its metal components used in the construction of clocks. Many replicas of the vessel have since been built. Though the submarine was not truly converted to a successful weapon until the mechanical age, people today view the Turtle as a military marvel.

This story about George Washington’s submarine was updated in 2022.

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The Winnipesaukee Water War and the 1859 Fight for NH Property Rights

On Sept 28, 1859, James Worster led 50 angry farmers, mill operators, loggers and laborers in a vain effort to destroy a 250-foot dam that controlled the outflow of Lake Winnipesaukee. The dam regulated how much water flowed into the Merrimack River and powered the cotton cards, the spinning frames and the power looms of the enormous textile mills in Lowell and Lawrence, Mass. It was just one battle in the Winnipesaukee water war that had gone on for years.

Lake Winnipesaukee by William Trost Richards. Photo courtesy Brooklyn Museum.

People would call the attack on the dam and the fight that broke out afterward the Lake Village Riot. Lake Village now exists as Lakeport, a neighborhood of Laconia, N.H. In 1858, it belonged to neighboring Gilford. A growing commercial hub, it had shops, a foundry, a machine shop and mills powered by the water that flowed from Lake Winnipesaukee to Opechee Bay.

That dam and the powerful out-of-staters behind it had damaged the farms and businesses of the Lakes Region. Fed up with the out-of-state corporations, the New Hampshire men then vented their anger with axes and iron rods.

The Lake Company

The would-be dam destroyers faced a formidable opponent: a hydraulic empire known as the Lake Company, owned by powerful Massachusetts manufacturers. Their giant mills needed hydraulic power to operate their machinery. The mill owners, known as the Boston Associates, had already reshaped the Merrimack Valley with dams and canals. By 1850 they controlled 45 miles of the Merrimack River and produced more waterpower than in all of France.

Amoskeag millyard, 1911

Still they needed more. And so they set up the deceptively named Winnipissiogee Lake Cotton and Woolen Manufacturing Company of New Hampshire, also known as the Lake Company.

Lake Company office in Lakeport, key battleground in the Winnipesaukee water war.

The Lake Company had little intention of manufacturing anything in New Hampshire’s Lakes Region. But it did intend to seize control of the Merrimack River’s headwaters. Between 1845 and 1856, the Lake Company stealthily took control of 103 square miles of New Hampshire waters, including Winnipesaukee, Squam, Winnisquam and Newfound lakes.

The company fortified dams and deepened channels. By 1859, the mill owners had a system for raising the level of the lakes during the winter and spring. Then during the summer they opened the floodgates to send waterpower to Massachusetts when rivers historically ran low.

Inequality

The citizens of New Hampshire soon figured out what was going on, and they didn’t like it one little bit. Raising the lake levels flooded farmers’ fields. Lowering the lake levels impeded navigation for shippers and ferryboat owners. It also prevented loggers from sending timber downstream. And it deprived local mills of enough waterpower to run their machinery.

Something else fueled the anger of the farmers, millers, loggers and shippers of New Hampshire’s Lakes Region. They grew frustrated with the industrialization along the Merrimack and its impact on New Hampshire’s way of life and its businesses. As New Hampshire’s waters drained away to Massachusetts, they carried away the wealth of the farmers and small business owners to the pocketbooks of powerful industrialists.

The big Lakes Region towns – Meredith, Gilford, Laconia – were gradually shifting from agriculture to manufacturing. It was an economic rearrangement that didn’t reward participants equally. Farms were not only declining, but becoming less profitable. Mill workers barely earned enough to survive. And inequality was on the rise.

Weaving room of an Amoskeag mill.

The Winnipesaukee Water War Begins

Into the breach stepped James Worster, a 50-something farmer and former blacksmith. Worster wasn’t the only New Hampshire citizen angered by the Lake Company’s economic wrongdoing. Others had tried to wreck dams. Others had asked the Legislature to intervene. And others had sued the company.

But none was as fanatical as James Worster. A Lake County agent said “he ought to be in jail or in an insane asylum.” A New Hampshire judge described him as “so much a man of one idea, that it is of no use to talk with him.”

For years that one idea was to loosen the Massachusetts mill owners’ iron grip on New Hampshire’s lake waters. Worster would, in the end, pay a steep price for his quixotic quest – and for failing to recognize that times were changing.

Up until the mid-19^th century, New Hampshire law permitted landowners to destroy a dam upstream if it damaged their property. Worster tried to destroy three of the dams owned by Massachusetts men (and came to grief) between 1847 and 1859. His obsession with the Lake Company would land him in jail.

For years he bounced around New Hampshire, from the Seacoast to Concord to the Lakes Region. With each move, he bought or rented farmland downstream from dams owned by out-of-state mill owners. Whether he deliberately obtained property likely to be flooded is an open question.

Lake Village Dam, where the Winnipesaukee water war broke out

James Worster

In 1847, Worster first tried to fight the Great Falls Manufacturing Co., Massachusetts owners of five cotton mills in New Hampshire. Worster leased farmland in Dover, which flooded when a dam held back the Salmon Falls River. He partially destroyed the dam by tearing off an abutment and cutting down its planking. He then threatened to destroy the whole thing. The company went to court and got an injunction against his further damaging the dam.

Salmon Falls River

Two years later, Worster’s daughter Adeline took on the Lake Company. She co-owned land with him in Tuftonboro on the northeast shore of Lake Winnipesaukee. She sued the company, claiming the Lake Company’s dam at Lake Village flooded their property, causing damage. The court dismissed the case in 1852.

While Adeline Worster’s case languished in the courts, her father got hold of more properties. All of them were flooded seasonally by the Lake Company’s machinations – meadowland in Sanbornton, a farm in Gilford along Paugus Bay, and a share of Rattlesnake Island in Lake Winnipesaukee. In 1853, after the court threw out his daughter’s case against the company, Worster threatened to break down the Lake Village dam.

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A Bloodied Nose

By then, the Lake Company’s people in New Hampshire were keeping a close eye on Worster. The company’s agent, James Bell, obtained from the New Hampshire Superior Court an injunction preventing Worster from interfering with Lake Company property. It couldn’t have hurt that his brother, Justice, Samuel Bell, sat on the court.

Worster then moved to Concord and obtained farmland bordering the Merrimack River in Hooksett. The property lay upstream from another dam that powered the giant Amoskeag textile mills in Manchester. Again it was a dam owned by Massachusetts men. And again it flooded.

The Merrimack River in flood, Manchester, N.H.

At 6:30 a.m. on March 7, 1859, Worster and another man showed up on the Amoskeag Company’s dam. A watchman ordered them to leave. They refused. A fight broke out and the watchman knocked down Worster, then in his 50s, three times and bloodied his nose.

That year the Legislature considered a bill to prevent landowners from destroying dams. It moved through committee until Worster and others appeared at the Statehouse and made an enormous fuss. The bill died.

Four months after his attack on the Amoskeag dam, Worster prepared to launch another. The Amoskeag Company’s agent caught wind of his plans and notified the sheriff. In July, Worster showed up with six men, and they started to rip the flashboards off the dam. The sheriff and his deputies then arrived and arrested Worster.

Worster was not only charged with conspiracy, but pressured financially by the Amoskeag Company. An agent bought an unpaid note in Worster’s name and got a lien put on the Hooksett property for nonpayment.

A Losing Battle for the Lake

By the fall of 1859, feelings were running so high against the Lake Village dam that the Lake Company took extra security precautions. The company’s office was practically on top of the dam, and an engineer was told to find “two or three men that would be sure and reliable in case of trouble.”

Lake Winnisquam

In August, Worster complained to the Lake Company that the dam had overflowed his properties along Lakes Winnisquam and Winnipesaukee. At that point he was on trial for trying to destroy the Amoskeag dam, and he was still enjoined from damaging the Lake Company’s dam in Lake Village.

That didn’t stop him.

Dam Trouble

The riot itself was preceded by a skirmish on the morning of Sept. 28, 1859. A few determined men showed up at the Lake Village dam. They intended to remove planking, which would allow the lake water to drain off their properties. They believed they were acting within the law.

When the men showed up, the sheriff arrived and sent them away. Undeterred, they came back in the afternoon and began removing the planking. The Lake Company’s agent, Josiah French, and his assistant tried to stop them. In the course of the struggle, French’s assistant struck one of the men on the hand with an iron bar. Some of them tried to push French off the dam.

The dam attackers left again, only to return around nightfall with a larger crowd. Worster arrived with the 50 men wielding axes and iron bars. They came from as far away as Concord. And they brought with them a law enforcement officer who arrested French and his assistant for assault and battery.

When the officer took the Lake Village agents away, he left the field clear for a serious assault on the dam. Fifty angry men with axes and iron bars bashed away at the hated structure. They did some damage, but may not have realized how hard it would be to destroy a tight, seven-year-old, 250-foot stone dam.

Perhaps they could have demolished the dam, but, according to the Winnipesaukee Gazette, “the big boys” of the village came to rough them up. The big boys were probably reimbursed by the Lake Company for their efforts. “The crowd was summarily dispersed, without much regard to ceremony – some of whom were not handled very lightly,” reported the Gazette.

Prison

A raft of litigation followed the melee. Seven of the rioters were charged with attempting to kill Josiah French by pushing him off the dam. The trial ended in a hung jury.

Squam Lake, another front in the Winnipesaukee water war

French was then sued for assault because he’d clubbed a rioter’s hand with an iron bar. A jury acquitted him.

Worster was charged with contempt for rioting after he’d been enjoined against interfering with the Lake Company’s property. The litigation dragged on for several years, during which Forster lost his temper and attacked the Lake Company’s lawyer.

Finally, he was convicted and sentenced to three months in prison and a $500 fine. Worster then gave the Lake Company no more trouble.

The Lake Company also succeeded in convincing the court to issue an injunction against eight of the rioters similar to the one that landed Worster in jail.

End of the Winnipesaukee Water War

The courtroom victories arising from the Lake Village Riot enabled the Lake Company to consolidate its control over New Hampshire’s water. For the next few decades, the Lake Village monopoly remained intact.

Eventually, the mills replaced hydropower with steam. The Lake Village’s control of the lakes would only be loosened by the decline of New England’s textile industry, which began to move south in the 1920s. By the 1930s, the New Hampshire state government would take control of the Lakes Region water flow.

Today, the state of New Hampshire’s Dam Bureau runs the Lake Village dam. And the dam operator still works out of the Lake Company’s old offices.

We are indebted to Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England, by Theodore Steinberg for this story. This post about the Winnipesaukee water war was updated in 2024

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New England Slavery: Decent Burial for a Slave Named Fortune, 200 Years Late

More than 200 years after his death, a Waterbury, Conn., slave received a proper burial. His name is Fortune, and his journey to this point starkly illustrates the timeline of changes in the way people viewed New England slavery since he died in 1798.

From the Mettatuck Museum’s Fortune’s Story Exhibit. Fortune as he may have looked in life. Painted by William Westwood, a medical illustrator, based on Fortune’s skeleton.

Upon his death, Fortune’s owner Dr. Preserved Porter decided to make use of his remains at his “School for Anatomy.” After Fortune died by the Naugatuck River, Dr. Porter personally carried out the gruesome process of reducing Fortune to a skeleton. The slave’s remains served as a medical teaching tool for decades.

In 1933, the Porter family gave the skeleton to the Mattatuck Museum, which displayed it as a curio from the days of New England slavery until 1970. Then the museum removed it from display, beginning a 40-year period during which no one knew quite what to do with Fortune.

Used for medical research, subjected to vandalism and mockery and finally shoved in a basement for more than 20 years, Fortune’s history is shameful. And his state in 2013 no doubt resulted from unethical behavior.

But since righting the original wrongs done to him is not possible, his fate created a conundrum. His guardians had to try to decide what to do with the remains of someone born into New England slavery around 1740. What would he want to happen to his remains today in their current condition?

No one could determine the answer with any degree of certainty. But on Sept. 12, 2013, Fortune received a proper burial, hopefully the best outcome possible.

New England Slavery

While never as prevalent in New England as it was in the South, New Englanders did indeed practice slavery.

The 1790 census showed the scope of New England slavery.

Colony	Number of slaves
Connecticut	2648	1790 Census
Massachusetts	4500	1754 Census
New Hampshire	157	1790 Census
Rhode Island	958	1790 Census
Vermont	16	1790 Census*

*This figure is subject to dispute.

Outlawed by 1784, New England slavery wasn’t completely extinguished until the mid-1800s. But Fortune was, nevertheless, one of the later slaves in New England.

How did Fortune die? There are theories, legends and precious little known about the answer to that question.

His death is documented. Local lore suggested that he had been trying to escape when he was killed. Other stories say he drowned in the Naugatuck River, by accident. Either way, he wound up a scientific specimen.

Heirloom

Today physicians afford people a great deal of control over what experiments are performed on them and how their remains are disposed. Fortune, however, belonged to the unfortunate class of people for whom there was no say.

There were laws against dissection of human cadavers, and the practice was controversial. Some places outlawed it completely. In Massachusetts, certain executed criminals could be dissected. But for slaves, it was as simple as Dr. Proctor taking Fortune’s body to a remote spot, hacking it up, boiling it down and putting the skeleton in his medical school.

It’s certain that the skeleton was put to good use in educating future doctors, but after Proctor’s death it was apparently relegated to the status of unusual family heirloom.

New England Slavery Remembered

In 1930, the skeleton had been reconstructed, with the bones labelled, and donated to the museum. Along the way, someone scrawled the name “Larry” on Fortune’s skull. In the 1940s, the museum put it on display to highlight Waterbury part in New England slavery as well as the medical school.

For purposes of the exhibit, and commemorative postcards, he became “Larry the Skeleton.”

He remained a fixture in the museum until 1970 when someone tactfully suggested it might not be appropriate to continue displaying his remains. So they were tucked away, secure in the basement. And there they stayed for more than 20 years.

Skeletons in the Basement

Quinnipiac faculty, staff, and students use diagnostic imaging techniques to learn more about Fortune and his life in New England slavery.

After a Waterbury black history publication started up that Fortune again came to light. The researchers who had pulled together the story of early African Americans in Waterbury received in the mail one of the old “Larry the Skeleton” postcards, according to the Episcopal News Service. They decided to look further into the matter.

With that, the museum faced the conundrum. People had undoubtedly subjected Fortune to a laundry list of indignities. But what would he want now?

There is, of course, no way Fortune would have ever imagined his fate. With no guidance, the museum began an exhibit and did its best to restore Fortune’s dignity. It shepherded him off to a better fate than the basement.

Using DNA and computer software that can guide facial reconstruction, they tried to bring his story to life. Artists did their best to recreate his likeness. A full symphony and choir performed a cantata based on an elegy written to honor his memory.

Respectful Burial

Diagnostic imaging tools were employed to learn all that could be learned about his life. Scientists discovered that he had injured his neck, which may have caused his death. But nothing indicated that someone had killed him.

And researchers attempted in vain to find his ancestors in the hopes that they could consult them about what to do with his remains. Fortune had a wife and four children, but the researchers discovered no descendants.

In the end, the museum returned to the church that baptized Fortune in the year before his death. They asked the Episcopal priest if she would perform his funeral. The Rev. Amy Welin agreed.

“When I realized he had been baptized at St. John’s, I thought, ‘Oh my heavens, this man is actually my parishioner!’” she told the Episcopal News Service. “We are giving a parishioner the decent and respectful burial that he was denied 215 years ago.”

This story about New England slavery was updated in 2022.

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Witch Trial Records Produced Hysteria of Their Own

Whether you’re a Pawn Stars fan or Antiques Roadshow is more your speed, the story is the same. Money-hungry owner of a rare ‘authentic’ bit of American history has his object appraised and comes face-to-face with the cold hard truth: The colonial desk has drawers made of pressboard, that 1472 on the bottom of the vase is really 1972, the Vermeer handed down through generations is really a paint-by-number made by a kid at summer camp.

Judge William Stoughton signed Bridget Bishop’s death warrant during her witch trial.

And so you sniff with satisfaction and click off the television. ‘Never happen to me,’ you say. But are you so sure?

Suppose you ran into a stranger, a military veteran down on his luck. And he explained he needed money to travel home because his wife just died. He knew that the rare document he possessed was worth more than he was asking, maybe even a lot more. But he was looking for quick cash and was offering you a win-win proposition. Would you help this poor fellow, or turn your back?

Now look at the two photos below. Two death warrants signed for witches from the witch trial records of the Salem witch hysteria – Bridget Bishop and Martha Corey. Look closely at the witch trial death warrant on the right. The paper seems incredibly bright and clean, the wax stamp is bright red. Almost too perfect, isn’t it?

And the witch trial death warrant on the left, tattered and barely readable. The stamp destroyed. You can’t even tell what it says. Who could authenticate such a document? But isn’t that what a missing sheriff’s order from 1692 would most likely look like?

You decide. Because one witch trial death warrant is undoubtedly worthless and one witch trial death warrant is worth, who knows?

Not so simple now, is it? It wasn’t so simple for investigative reporter A.B. Macdonald of Kansas City, either.

Witch Trial Hysteria

In 1692 and 1693, the courts of Massachusetts did indeed order the deaths of 20 people for witchcraft. Two hundred (perhaps a few more) were charged in what historians now believe was a massive case of petty jealousies and score settling. One scientist, though, has posited that it was a case of fungus-induced hysteria.

Killing witches was nothing new, but the the Salem trials stood out for their sheer insanity and corruption. In the aftermath, the court papers were stored away and an 1875 review found the death warrants for the 20 murdered witches were, for the most part, gone from the files.

Bridget Bishop’s death warrant

Pilfered for profit? Removed as souvenirs? Purged because of the shame now associated with the trials? Simply lost? It’s not clear. But only one witch trial death warrant remained with the original records. The others were missing, and a great mystery to the collector community.

$20 Death Warrant

Forged death warrant

This was roughly the state of play in 1932 when “Captain E. Newman Bradley” knocked on the door of A.B. MacDonald, a writer for the Kansas City Star. Though somewhat knowledgeable about historic documents, MacDonald bought Bradley’s story that he needed money to travel because he had been notified his wife was dead.

MacDonald’s main reservation about paying $20 for the witch trial death warrant was that he was taking advantage of Bradley’s misfortune. He would pay more, he offered, if the man could wait until morning for a check. But Bradley was clearly a bird-in-the-hand man, and fled with a wave of his hand.

Of course, researchers now suspect Bradley had more than one death warrant in his collection, and he was probably off to his next mark.

Though the witch trials actually took place in what is now Danvers, Mass., much of the action, including the executions, took place in modern-day Salem. Thus Salem has forever been the hub for the history and hysteria surrounding the witch trials. So it was Salem where MacDonald’s document ultimately wound up for review.

With visions of scoring $10,000 for the document, a Vermont antiques dealer presented it to Howard Corning, secretary of the Essex Institute, now the Peabody Essex Museum. Priceless or worthless?

Corning delivered the bad news. The document was not only a forgery, it was a bad one, Corning said. And he pointed the dealer to the authentic warrant – the bright clean one for Bridgett Bishop – to demonstrate what they should look like.

More Forgeries Surface

But MacDonald was not the only one fooled. A slew of phony death warrants were floating around, bought by eager collectors. As more and more people began plaguing Corning about their ‘authentic’ warrants, he began speaking out about them. Harvard historian Steven Biel produced a terrific article about the forgeries for Common-Place in 2005.

Today the forgeries are lodged in collections and attics around the country, and the ways they are uncovered make for interesting reading. MacDonald wrote of his experience for the Kansas City Star.

In 1939, another death warrant emerged for five of the accused witches. It is in the Boston Public Library collections. Others, however, remain missing. None of this means that the ‘death warrant’ you find mixed in with the family photos in the attic or stashed in a box at the yard sale isn’t real. But you probably want to have it checked out before planning your retirement.

You can view the witch trial records, collected at various libraries and museums, at the Salem Witch Trials Documentary Archive.

This story was updated in 2024.

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Black Kings and Governors of New England

From about 1750 to 1850, New England had at least 31 elected black kings and governors, nearly all of them enslaved.

They were elected on ‘Negroes Hallowday’ or “Negroes Election Day,” the most important day of the year. Black men held it annually on the same day the white men of New England gathered to vote for their leaders.

In the royal colonies where the Crown appointed the governor – New Hampshire and Massachusetts – black men elected black kings.

In the charter colonies where white men elected their own governor – Rhode Island and Connecticut – black men elected black governors. (For a list of known black governors of Connecticut, click here.)

African-Americans elected a king in Portsmouth, N.H. So did the Massachusetts towns of Salem and Lynn. Newport and Narragansett in Rhode Island elected black governors, as did a handful of towns in Connecticut.

For New England’s African slaves, Election Day meant a rare break from toil and a chance to poke fun at their white masters. They could express pride in their African heritage. And they could elect black kings and governors to maintain discipline among the slaves. Better they do it than their white masters, went the rationale.

Rum, Gingerbread and Election Cake

E.R. Potter, his family and a slave. Newport Historical Society

E.R. Potter, his family and a slave, perhaps Black Governor John. Newport R.I. Historical Society

Election Day began with the Puritans as a jolly secular holiday. The colonists traveled to town in spring or early summer to elect their local leaders. Some had to travel quite far, and might stay overnight.

Important families, or maybe the local government, hosted election-day celebrations. They served rum and gingerbread and thick, fruit-studded election cakes.

The masters let the slaves take Election Day off or brought them into town. According to Salem minister William Bentley, African bondsmen and servants “were too restless at home to be of any use till (the election holidays) were over.”

And so the Africans started organizing their own elections and their own celebrations. They did it first in Newport and Hartford and then throughout New England.

In Connecticut, an enslaved African named London served as the first black governor known to history. London, who belonged to Capt. Thomas Seymour, won election as Connecticut governor in Hartford in 1755.

As Connecticut Colony’s population grew, black residents began to elect leaders who lived nearby. Historians know of black governors in Derby, Durham, Farmington, New Haven, New London, Norwich and Seymour.

A Real Black King

One of New England’s black kings, Nero Brewster, had been born of royal lineage in Africa early in the 18^th century. As a child, slavers captured him, took him to the American colonies and sold him to a wealthy tavern owner in Portsmouth, N.H.

For many years, Nero won the annual Negro Election and presided over an informal black government that mirrored the white polity.

Other black kings had royal African blood. Even before the Negro Election began in Lynn, Mass., African immigrants honored a prince of Africa named Pompey. Slavers had captured and sold him, but his master freed him when he grew too old to work.

Pompey then moved to a little glade near the Saugus River Every year he hosted a holiday for the African bondsmen from nearby towns. Women picked flowers to crown old King Pompey, and the men sat and talked about happier times on the Gambia River in West Africa.

Monarchs Held in Esteem

Some black kings and governors won election because of their achievements, their strength or their abilities. Their rank could also reflect their masters’ stature. Nero Brewster’s master, Col. William Brewster, owned the Bell Tavern in Portsmouth, a well-known gathering place for patriots during the Revolutionary War.

Advertisement for the Bell Tavern

Hartford’s Black Governor Peleg Nott, described as “a first rate feller,” had traveled far. He drove a provision cart during the American Revolution. Black Governor Tobiah of Derby, Conn., was “a man of tact, courage and unusual intelligence.”

Black Governor Guy Watson of South Kingston fought in the 1^st Rhode Island Regiment at the battles of Red Bank and Ticonderoga.

And black Governor Quosh Freeman of Derby, Conn., was a “man of herculean strength, a giant six-footer.”

The Parade

Portsmouth’s Negro Election Day was probably typical of what happened throughout New England.

Black King Nero dressed in his finest clothes to lead a procession of slaves and freedmen from Portsmouth and neighboring towns. His honor guard, perhaps decked out in feathers, flowers and ribbons, accompanied him.

The parade started with the crack of a gunshot. Marchers made a happy racket with many African languages, gunshots, tambourines, banjos, fiddles and drums. All the slaves wore their best clothes, often hand-me-downs from their masters, altered with an African flair. They borrowed swords, guns and even horses from their masters.

What did their costumes look like? According to a description of one fugitive from slavery, he wore a Saxon blue jacket with bright green baize lining, slash sleeves and small metal buttons, a brown sleeveless jacket and scarlet breeches.

In Portsmouth and elsewhere, bondsmen deliberately played the fool in their gaudy Election Day costumes. White people looked on with enjoyment, belittling the slaves’ deportment and clothing as “fantastic.”

Today, historians note the white onlookers didn’t understand that the black celebrants were making fun of their stiffness and pretensions. Some historians view their antics as a form of self-preservation. They didn’t want white people intimidated by their claim to participate in government.

Haranguing and Socializing

A black king's election was an occasion for dancing. Creative Commons

Election of a black king, an occasions for dancing. Creative Commons

When the Portsmouth marchers reached an open space, Nero and his opponent harangued each other as the crowd socialized and celebrated. Women, who couldn’t vote, lobbied for their favorite candidates. The revelers reunited with friends and family who lived far away, and exchanged news and opinion about the white people they served.

More than a hundred probably took part, for in 1767 Portsmouth alone had 124 male and 63 female slaves, according to Brewster’s Rambles. (The total population of Portsmouth, one of the biggest cities in the colonies, reached 4,466 that year.)

After about three hours of electioneering and merriment, men voted and then declared Nero the black king. He subsequently announced his court: Viceroy Willie Clarkson, Sheriff Jock Odiorne and Deputy Sheriff Pharoah Shores. All came from Africa.

Who ran against Black King Nero? One wonders if it was ever Prince Whipple, the literate servant of William Whipple, who lived in the Moffatt-Ladd House.

Prince Whipple, born a prince of Africa, served as General Whipple’s bodyguard during the Revolutionary War. He also stood with the general at the Battle of Saratoga and at the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

According to legend, Prince Whipple accompanied George Washington during his famous crossing of the Delaware.

In the 1851 painting by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, some identify the black oarsman as Prince Whipple.

Victory Party

Regardless of whom he defeated at the polls, Black King Nero led the raucous procession back to his master’s house for a victory party. As at the other Negroes Hallowdays, Nero’s master paid for the meal, though the black slaves and freedmen prepared it.

Nero and his so-called Negro Court were toasted indoors, while games were played and athletic competitions held outside. At the end of the day the celebrants moved to the slave quarters, where they danced energetically to fiddle tunes of West African origin or influence.

The black elections could get expensive for the masters. In Narragansett, R.I., E.R. Potter’s slave John was elected governor. Potter, a state and federal legislator, told John that one of them would have to give up politics or the expenses would ruin them both. John stepped down.

Black Kings and Their Courts

Throughout the next year, Black King Nero meted out judgments and punishments to slaves accused of petty crimes.

In 1859, Portsmouth columnist C.W. Brewster described one trial in a typically condescending (for whites) account. A slave named Prince Jackson reportedly stole an ax. The black sheriff, Jock Odiorne, seized him and summoned the court.

Black King Nero sat for the examination in which evidence was submitted. He found Prince guilty and condemned him to 20 lashes on the bare back at the town pump.

The slaves gathered at the pump. Then, wrote Brewster,

…the Sheriff, after taking off his coat and tying up the convict to the pump, hands the whip to his deputy, Pharaoh Shores, addressing the company, “Gemmen, this way we s’port our government” – turning to his deputy – “Now, Pharaoh, pay on !” After the whipping was over, the sheriff dismissed the prisoner, telling him that the next time he is found this side Christian Shore, unless sent by his master, he will receive twenty lashes more.

Prince did not reform. Shortly afterward he was found guilty of larger thefts and taken to the white people’s court.

“Here, we feel a just equality”

During the Revolutionary War, Black King Nero led at least one meeting of 20 black slaves to discuss their freedom. He may well have held more.

Inspired by revolutionary ideals and hatred of their servitude, they drew up a petition demanding their freedom. They may have borrowed some of the language from the patriots who talked of revolution at the Bell Tavern. They certainly took some language from the Declaration of Independence.

The petition ensured that history remembered Black King Nero better than his master.

The painting Washington Crosses the Delaware depicts a black oarsman reputed to be Prince Whipple.

As in the Declaration, the signers list their grievances and denounce their enemies:

…thro’ ignorance & brutish violence of their native countrymen and by similar designs of others, (who ought to have taught them better) & by the avarice of both, they, while but children, and incapable of self defense, whose infancy might have prompted protection, were seized, imprisoned, and transported from their native country, where (tho’ ignorance and inchristianity prevailed) they were born free to a country, where (tho’ knowledge, christianity and freedom, are their boast) they are compelled, and their unhappy posterity, to drag on their lives in miserable servitude. . . .

The Dignity of Human Nature

The bondsmen emphatically rejected any idea that they are inferior to white people. “[H]ere, we feel the passions and desires of men, tho’ check’d by the rod of slavery! here, we feel a just equality!” they wrote.

And they ended with a prayer, “that the name of SLAVE may no more be heard in a land gloriously contending for the sweets of freedom.”

They submitted the handwritten petition for freedom to the General Assembly in Exeter on Nov. 12, 1779. According to Black Portsmouth, the original manuscript disappeared. No one knows whether the men signed their own names or used a mark.

It was read in the House of Representatives on April 25, 1780, and ordered published in the New Hampshire Gazette. The newspaper printed it that summer, with a disclaimer that it was intended “for the amusement “ of its readers.

The House then took up the petition on June 9, 1780, but decided to table it until “a more convenient opportunity.” No other legislative action would be taken on it for 234 years.

Finally, Freedom

Prince Whipple’s grave in Portsmouth, N.H.

Six of the signers of the New Hampshire petition, including Prince Whipple, gained their freedom after the Revolution. Black King Nero died a slave, and possibly as the last black king of Portsmouth. Historians haven’t unearthed any evidence that any other black kings were elected after he died.

Nero’s obituary described him as, “A Monarch, who, while living, was held in reverential esteem by his subjects consequently, his death is greatly lamented.”

In 2013, state Sen. Martha Fuller Clark of Portsmouth declared Nero Brewster and the other 19 captive Africans deserved some closure. She filed a bill before the Legislature to posthumously free the remaining 15 slaves. The bill then passed, and Gov. Maggie Hassan signed it into law. King Nero Brewster won his freedom, on Friday, June 7, 2013.

What’s more:

Our story owes thanks to two books about black kings and governors: Black Portsmouth and Black Yankees.

Prince Whipple died in 1796 at age 46 and now lies buried in Portsmouth’s North Cemetery. In 1908, local military veterans placed a stone on his grave.

In October 2003, road contractors rediscovered the Negro Burying Ground under Portsmouth’s Chestnut Street.

This story about black kings and governors was updated in 2023.

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The Greatest Submarine Rescue Ever: Saving the Squalus

On the morning of May 23, 1939, the submarine USS Squalus slipped beneath the storm-tossed surface of the Atlantic on a sea trial. Minutes into the maneuver, she began flooding uncontrollably. The Squalus sank to the ocean floor nine miles off the New Hampshire coast, trapping 59 men on board.

The salvage tug Falcon on the way to rescue the crew of the Squalus. Photo courtesy Boston Public Library, Leslie Jones collection.

For some of the Squalus crew, May 23, 1939 would be carved on their headstones. For others, it would mark a 39-hour ordeal they would live with for the rest of their lives. And for a hastily assembled Navy rescue team rushed to New Hampshire, it would be forever remembered as the date they launched an unprecedented rescue mission that stretched their abilities to new extremes.

Tears and Honors

No submarine rescue had ever succeeded beyond 20 feet of water. The Squalus was down 240 feet. The Navy team had to use new methods that had existed only in theory before that day. They encountered problems that forced them to make decisions on the fly—each with life-or-death consequences. And they did it all with the world watching intently, captivated by the fate of the trapped men whose plight had been broadcast around the world at telegraph speed.

Whether the men could be rescued before their oxygen ran out depended on an unproved diving bell, the seamanship of the crews, courageous divers, a quick-thinking admiral, a visionary submarine commander and the vagaries of New England weather.

In the end, the officers and men of the Squalus’ rescue and salvage team would receive four Medals of Honor, 46 Navy Crosses and one Distinguished Service Medal. There would be countless tears of mourning in the homes of those who did not survive the accident. And there would be a glorious new chapter written in the history of underwater rescue.

Newest Sub in the Fleet

The USS Squalus being fitted out at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard.

Harold Preble left his rented cottage on Great Bay in Greenland, N.H., on the morning of May 23 and gave young Dorothy Emery a ride to school. She was his landlord’s teen-aged daughter, and she agreed to keep an eye on his sailboat for a few days. Preble would be joining the crew of the Squalus for routine sea trials.

Tall, spare and outdoorsy, he was the senior naval architect at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard a few miles away. He had ridden every new sub that left the yard for 22 years. Preble thought o the $5 million Squalus, the newest submarine in the fleet, as the best yet.

Named after a small shark with a big bite, Squalus launched before a cheering crowd at the shipyard in September 1937. Since then, she had performed successfully in 18 test dives, and no one expected trouble on the 19th. The sub was watertight, her systems worked.

The Squalus Commander

Her commander that morning was Lt. Oliver Naquin, a 35-year-old Louisiana native, once the hottest trumpet player at Annapolis. Now married with two children, he had charge of four officers, 51 enlisted men and three civilians – Preble and two electricians, one from the shipyard and the other from General Motors.

The Squalus got underway at 7:30 a.m. in choppy seas and a stiff wind. She then headed down the Piscataqua River and out to a point four miles past the barren Isles of Shoals. Naquin ordered the crew to rig the submarine for a dive and all hands assumed their posts.

At 8:40 a.m., Naquin gave the order to dive. The klaxon sounded, the hatch closed, vents opened and the Squalus went into a steep dive. Everything worked perfectly.

Preble turned to Naquin. “This is going to be a beauty,” he said.

‘Take her up! Take her up’

At 60 feet something went horribly wrong. The Squalus began to level off, and the crew in the forward compartments of the submarine felt a slight flutter. Suddenly Yeoman Charles Kuney heard over the battle phone frantic voices from the engine room. Someone screamed desperately, “Take her up! Take her up!”

The main air induction valve had opened, or failed to close, for reasons never discovered. Tons of seawater gushed into the engine room aft of the vessel.

The stunned crew paused for a moment, then frantically tried to raise the Squalus. They closed the flooded aft compartments and vainly tried to shut the induction valve. Preble and Machinist Mate Nate Pierce slammed levers to force compressed air into the ballast tanks to lift the stricken vessel. The Squalus stabilized and seemed to nose upward. Then, as the men tried to close leaks in the ventilation lines, pressure suddenly increased terrifically. Torrents of ocean water surged into the forward compartments, knocking down Preble.

The weight of the water in the aft compartments was too much. The Squalus began to sink to the ocean floor.

Squalus Blackout

Chief Electrician’s Mate Lawrence Gainor realized seawater was flowing into the aft battery room. Steam poured off the six-foot-high batteries and boiling acid rattled their caps. Gainor saw that the batteries were shorting out and would soon either ignite or explode.

Lloyd Maness

He crawled through a narrow opening to the switches and turned the first battery off, setting off a miniature lightning storm. Half blinded and sure he’d be electrocuted, he shut the other switch off just in time. The entire sub immediately blacked out.

Lt. Naquin, clinging to a periscope, ordered Electrician’s Mate Lloyd Maness to close the watertight steel door between the operating compartment and the aft battery room. The North Carolinian held the door open shouting, “Hurry up.” His shipmates shouted back, “Keep it open! We’re coming!” They swam and clawed their way through the torrents of seawater to the safety of the operating compartment. Eight men made it through the door.

Maness then struggled to close it, his muscles quivering with the effort to hold back the floodwaters with a 300-pound steel door.

Sherman Shirley

Finally the door shut with a click. Maness realized his friend, Torpedoman Sherman Shirley, was on the other side of the door. Shirley was to be married the following Sunday, and he had asked Maness to be his best man.

Maybe Shirley and some of the other men had barricaded themselves safely in the aft torpedo room, Maness thought. Maybe.

What Had They Done?

Later that morning at Portsmouth High School, the principal came into one of the history classes walking fast and looking tense. “We all glanced up from the maps we were drawing,” recalled Dorothy Emery. The principal called two students outside. The rest of the students wondered what these two had done wrong.

During the next period the principal grimly rushed into class again. He summoned three students from the classroom. “We couldn’t imagine what was going on,” wrote Emery in her book, Salt Water Farm: Memoir of a Place on Great Bay.

At recess, Dorothy found out from the children of Navy men and fishermen that the Squalus had gone down. The children called out of class all had fathers trapped at the bottom of the ocean. Classes were called off for the rest of the day.

The ‘Dreaded Hour’ Arrives

Lt. Cdr. Charles “Swede” Momsen was eating a ham sandwich for lunch at the Washington Navy Yard when the phone rang. He was a submarine rescue expert and head of the Experimental Diving Unit, and one of his divers was just emerging from a pressure tank. It was the final test of a 10-year-series of tests using a mixture of helium and oxygen to avoid decompression sickness, or the bends.

Commander Lockwood in Operations of the Navy Department was on the line. “Squalus is down off Isles of Shoals, depth between 200 and 400 feet,” he said. “Have your divers and equipment ready to leave immediately.”

Since 1921, 825 men had died in submarine accidents. No rescue attempt had ever succeeded. In 1925, Momsen commanded a submarine that made a futile attempt to rescue a sister sub rammed by a passenger ship. The officers aboard the doomed submarine were his friends.

Momsen had vowed to find a way to rescue trapped submarine crews. He invented an underwater breathing device, called the Momsen lung. And he conceived of the diving bell that he would use, for the first time, to try to rescue the Squalus crew.

Within two hours, Momsen boarded a seaplane at the Anacostia Naval Air Station in Washington. “The dreaded hour was here!“ he thought. “Would the dreams of the experimenter come true or would some quirk of fate cross up the plans and thus destroy all of this work?”

Terrors

Momsen’s plane landed in the teeth of a storm on the Piscataqua River that evening.

Fog forced another plane carrying a team of divers to land in Newport, R.I., 125 miles to the south. The divers jammed into three cars that screamed up the coast as state and local police blocked intersections. They drove so fast they lost the police escort in Boston. When they finally arrived at 4:15 a.m., one diver said, “After that trip, the terrors of deep-sea diving are nothing.”

Cmdr. Charles “Swede” Momsen

Around midnight, Momsen reported to Rear Admiral Cyrus Cole, the shipyard commander.

Good Instincts

Cole’s instinct that the Squalus was in trouble, and his quick response, proved crucial to the rescue of the men.

He grew concerned when the submarine didn’t report surfacing on schedule at 9:40 a.m. He called the White Island lighthouse keeper, who couldn’t see a trace of the submarine.

At 11 a.m., Cole rushed to the dock where the Squalus’ sister sub, the Sculpin, prepared to depart for the Panama Canal a half hour later. Cole told the sub’s captain to pass through the vicinity of the Squalus and to try to make contact.

Cole called Washington to ask for the Navy’s best divers. Then he summoned the USS Falcon, a 187-foot minesweeper stationed in New London, Conn., 200 miles away. She would carry Momsen’s diving bell.

Squalus Sunk Here

Meanwhile, 240 feet beneath the surface of the ocean, ice formed on the bulkheads in the Squalus’ forward torpedo room. There, some of the survivors lay quietly under blankets in the dark. Others were in the control room, moving as little as possible. Most of them were wet, and all were cold. The toxic air caused some of them to vomit.

It was essential they preserve their strength. Lt. Naquin had figured they could last 48 hours if they didn’t use too much air. So he ordered the men to stay calm, to lie down, to try to nap, not to talk. They were to use buckets to relieve themselves rather than go to the head. Each man was given a Momsen lung and reminded how to use it.Men spread soda lime powder on the Squalus decks to absorb carbon dioxide.

Naquin stayed cheerful, smiling and asking after each of the men. He ordered them not to talk about the men trapped in the flooded engine rooms. Despite the frigid temperature, no one complained or expressed fear.

The survivors sent up signals for help. Naquin also ordered Lt. (jg) John Nichols to release a marker buoy from the deck of the boat. The three-foot yellow buoy was attached to a long cable and had a telephone in it. Big letters on the buoy spelled out, “Submarine sunk here. Telephone inside.”

As the buoy shot to the surface, a valve broke in the torpedo room and seawater gushed through, knocking down the cook. The crew hastily plugged the leak.

The Squalus crew sent up smoke rockets regularly, and blew slugs of oil out of the toilet bowl to supplement the smoke bombs.

Not one detail was overlooked, recalled one survivor. There was absolutely no excitement.

Two Options for Squalus Rescue

The rescue chamber aboard the Falcon. Photo courtesy Boston Public Library Leslie Jones Collection.

That first night, the vessels anchored on the search perimeter created a spooky tableau. Searchlights played along the inky surface of the ocean, illuminating the mist and the rain. Men looked for signs of the Squalus from the Sculpin and from the Coast Guard tugs Wandank and Chandler. Two Coast Guard patrol boats cruised outside the perimeter. As the fog rolled in, they wondered when the Falcon would arrive.

Aboard the Sculpin, Momsen considered the situation carefully. He knew he had to work fast. The ocean waters could breach the wreck and drown the men, or chlorine gas could poison them. And they were running out of air.

Momsen had rejected a proposal to raise the Squalus because it was too difficult and too risky. That left two options: The trapped men could don Momsen lungs and slowly ascend to the surface, or the rescuers could use the diving bell from above. If they went with the first option, the men would have to escape quickly through the hatch. They’d be weak and susceptible to the cold and pressure of the ocean waters. Some wouldn’t make it.

“On the other hand,” recalled Momsen, “rescue by the rescue chamber is safer, and there is less chance of losing men.”

That meant they’d have to wait on the slow-moving Falcon – and hope for better weather.

‘What’s your trouble?’

It was only by luck that the rescuers knew where the Squalus went down.

Somehow, the exact coordinates of the dive had been garbled in transmission to the shipyard. So Sculpin went in the wrong direction to search for signs of Squalus.

One lookout, Lt. (jg) Ned Denby, happened to glance in the opposite direction and thought he saw a smudge of red smoke. He whipped out his binoculars and confirmed it was a distress signal just as the smoke disappeared. The Sculpin changed course and raced toward the spot.

At 12:55 p.m., Sculpin recovered the yellow telephone buoy and then dropped anchor. The trapped submariners’ spirits rose because they knew the propellers they heard came from their sister ship.

Sculpin’s commander, Lt. Warren Wilkin, got on the phone. “Hello, Squalus. This is Sculpin. What’s your trouble?”

Nichols, the lieutenant (jg.) who had sent up the marker buoy, responded: “High induction open, crew’s compartment, forward and after engine rooms flooded. Not sure about after torpedo room, but could not establish communication with that compartment. Hold the phone and I will put the captain on.”

Thirty seconds later, Naquin got on the line. “Hello, Wilkin,” said Naquin. Then the cable snapped.

To continue reading, click on the link The Greatest Submarine Rescue Ever: Saving the Squalus (Part 2).

This story was updated in 2024.

14 comments 10.1K views

Austin Corbin, The ‘Part-Hog, Part-Shark’ Robber Baron of New Hampshire

In the history of New Hampshire, Austin Corbin stands out as probably the most loathsome blight the state ever produced.

So perhaps it’s fitting that his Newport mansion sold in 2019 for a fraction of the asking price. Corbin built the estate around his childhood home, which he razed except for his old bedroom. The house measures 7,500 square feet with four bedrooms and six bathrooms, and the owners asked $3.75 million for it. In September 2019 it sold for $612,733.

Born on July 11, 1827, Austin Corbin made his mark on the world as a railroad man, plantation owner, resort operator and banker. His success came mostly in places outside New England, such as Arkansas, Iowa and New York. And he carefully cultivated the image of a prosperous businessman who summered at his New Hampshire mansion.

Aerial view, Austin Corbin’s Newport estates. Image courtesy Google Maps.

A Monument to Greed

The mansion was his birthplace, but he gradually tore it down over the years. In its place he erected a monument to his greed, complete with a private rail siding for his personal rail cars. You can see it here as it was when the Wall Street Journal featured it as the House of the Day in 2012.

Austin Corbin continued visiting New Hampshire his whole life, and died on his estate in 1896. He was much lamented by the press of the day, which regurgitated the pleasant fiction of the self-made business success.

Scratch the surface of Corbin, however, and you unearth a long and sordid history of corruption, swindling, bribery, thuggery and anti-Semitism. It’s hard to imagine that one man could possess all these traits and in such full measure — but he did.

Austin Corbin

Austin Corbin is largely forgotten in New Hampshire now, but one odd memorial to him remains: Corbin’s Park. You’d need to look a little bit to find it. Even if you did you couldn’t get in (because it’s fenced off and private). But it still exists, taking up 20,000-plus acres – roughly half the size of Lake Winnipesaukee. You’ll find it in Sullivan County near Claremont on the borders of Grantham, Croydon, Cornish and Plainfield.

The park was odd even when it was conceived in 1888, and it’s odder still today. Once upon a time it was open to public visitors; it now remains silent for most of the year. It serves only as a local curiosity and private animal preserve for canned hunts. It’s made the news in the last 20 years only once — when a hunter mistook one of his companions for one of the park’s boars, shot at him (twice) and killed him.

Still, Austin Corbin and his park remain a subject of interest. Brian Meyette, a neighbor of the park, has created an authoritative and informative history of the park at his website. He writes on the site, and rarely does a day go by, even now, when someone doesn’t land on the site looking for information.

Widely Despised

And if you read about the robber barons who did so much to crash financial markets and corrupt governments in the 1800s, you’ll find Austin Corbin generally makes an appearance. In the photo below from the satirical magazine Puck from September 1882, Austin Corbin is depicted in a Louis XV-style party cavorting with other unscrupulous businessmen of his ilk, such as Jay Gould and Russell Sage. A host of senators, including Massachusetts’ George Hoar, are dressed as their courtesans. Corbin stands to the rear of the group with his back to us and a bag of money slung over his shoulder.

Though not as prominent as some of the wealthier robber barons, Austin Corbin was well-known and widely despised in his day. And the story of that black hole of forest in the middle of New Hampshire and the man who created it provides some stunning parallels to the corruption we are surrounded by Austin today.

Friends in High Places

Austin Corbin’s business success is indisputable. He made a long career out of marrying his political connections with his business interests to his benefit and the to benefit of his investors. After learning law at Harvard Law School, he went to work with Ralph Metcalf, Newport’s politically connected lawyer and former New Hampshire secretary of state. Metcalf would later go on to serve two terms as New Hampshire governor.

In 1851, Austin Corbin struck out for the western frontier, which at the time was Iowa. He was armed with his and Metcalf’s connections and investor cash. Metcalf alone had loaned him $1,200. Arriving in Davenport, Iowa, he began working as a lawyer. However, he quickly jumped into the more lucrative real estate and banking trades. Here he got his first experience in the profitable business of selling mortgages to the flood of people relocating to the Midwest.

Banking in mid-1800s was a state-by-state business, with banks each issuing their own currencies supported by their gold reserves and their own credit from lenders. The system was unstable, open to a host of threats such as banks overextending themselves and counterfeiting. The result was a system where anyone accepting currency had to question first if it was real and, if so, was it actually worth anything?

Banking on Success

Austin Corbin succeeded in this rough-and-tumble business. He ran one of the few banking concerns in Davenport that did not have to shut its doors during the 1857 financial panic. However, he was also intimately familiar with the weaknesses of state-by-state banking. At one point, he and his banking partner caused a minor panic in Davenport when they began refusing Illinois currency because of their suspicions about its soundness.

Such decisions were difficult. Accept a weak currency and a bank could be out a lot of money. Refuse it and its customers would revolt. When the Congress passed the National Banking and Currency Act of 1863, Austin Corbin and a group of associates received the first charter for the First National Bank of Davenport. It was the first national bank anywhere under the new rules, according to the bank’s published history.

The national bank system and uniform currency were highly unpopular with established banks. They were accustomed to making money off their own currencies. But the politicians of the day desperately needed to stabilize the financial markets and gain a new source of revenue for the fast-accumulating Civil War debt. The national banks, operated by the Republican-friendly businessmen who won their charters, would provide a much-needed supply of customers for that debt.

Austin Corbin, always politically plugged in, saw the opportunity. He and his colleagues in the First National Bank of Davenport wasted no time in sending off their application to Washington, D.C., seeking the charter. In addition to his political insights, Corbin also had another asset that may have helped clear the way for his banking venture. President Lincoln’s Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase.

Another Friend

Chase, who wrote the National Banking and Currency Act and issued the charters, was also a fellow son of New Hampshire. Originally from Cornish, Chase had moved to Cincinnatti, Ohio, in the 1830s. The he won election as both senator and governor before Lincoln chose him as his treasury secretary. He was also Austin Corbin’s cousin.

No strong record details the relationship between Corbin and Chase, who sought the presidency three times and failed at each attempt. On at least one occasion, however, Corbin repaid the kindness of his cousin. Chase’s daughter had married the governor of Rhode Island and the two had a turbulent and scandalous marriage with infidelity on both sides. On one well-documented occasion, Chase’s daughter was driven from their Rhode Island mansion. Corbin gave her shelter and, more importantly, stepped forward to defend her in the press.

For two years Corbin acted as the Iowa bank’s president, and when he resigned in 1865 the bank’s assets had grown from $100,000 to more than $500,000. The national charter had been a goldmine for those banks that seized the opportunity. With their single, uniform currency they were wildly popular with the stability-seeking public. Local currencies, soon subject to discounts by anyone accepting them, gradually left circulation.

The future for the national banks looked bright, but Austin Corbin decided his interests would be better served in New York. And so he took his now-considerable fortune to Manhattan where he could profit by connecting eastern capital with western farmers.

Friend to the Farmer

Corbin’s devious brain saw an opportunity in the rewritten banking act. Congress had restricted commercial banks from holding mortgages. While this protected the currency from being tied to institutions conducting profligate lending, it also created a business opportunity for Corbin. He worked with mortgage companies and a network of brokers to sell mortgages to farmers in the frontier states. The mortgages would be profitable enough, paying 7 to 10 percent. Austin Corbin,though, found a way to improve on that.

His mortgage brokers also kept a portion of the loan as a fee. For instance, someone borrowing $1000 would pay the regular payments with 10 percent interest to Corbin’s mortgage company until the $1000 was repaid. In addition, the borrower would pay a fee to the broker of perhaps $200 from the loan itself.

Austin Corbin of Newport, New Hampshire

Corbin’s practices were illegal. He was sued and convicted of usury for the scam, but he succeeded in hoodwinking the farmers more often than he got caught. He became a millionaire in the process and earned his investors far more of a return.

Still, to any ambitious, flimflam man of the era, mortgage scams amounted to small potatoes. The mortgage processing machinery that Wall Street used to destroy the economy in 2008 hadn’t been invented yet. In Corbin’s day, the real action was in railroads, and that’s where he focused his energy.

Railroads

Railroads in the late 1800s were booming. There was no quicker, nor more corrupt, way to make big money fast. States, counties and municipal governments would grant millions of acres to the roads to lure them in. Financing was readily available for the sexiest venture of the age. And the western frontiers had a tremendous appetite for moving freight and goods.

In addition, the constant mergers and the possibilities for fraud and speculation were tailor made for the Wall Street hustlers. Some of America’s biggest fortunes were made, at least in part, off the railroads. Vanderbilt, Gould, Corning, Harriman and Fisk all profited mightily off the boom, and Austin Corbin intended to join the party.

He is described as a reluctant participant in his first venture — bringing the Indiana, Bloomington, and Western Railroad out of receivership as its president. Corbin quickly saw how the industry worked. The I.B.&W was born out of the financial mismanagement and corruption of the smaller lines brought together to form it. It connected Indianapolis with points in Illinois.

After Austin Corbin shepherded the railroad from receivership in 1870, it racked up a remarkable $13 million in new debt. Then it collapsed into default again in July of 1874. Furious bondholders were left picking through the ashes of the company that now consisted of an inventory of decrepit equipment and little cash. The books were a tangle of self-dealing, and there was little to recover. It gave Austin Corbin a taste for what railroading could be, though, and he went on to own or control numerous railroads in his lifetime.

Philadelphia and Reading

Compared to Frank Gowen, Austin Corbin was a saint. But that’s not saying much. Gowen assumed the presidency of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad in 1870, at the age of 33. The Reading had a profitable business in transporting anthracite coal from the Schuylkill County region of Pennsylvania to Philadelphia. There it could be loaded out to other destinations.

Cowen believed that Reading could enhance its profit if it could also own the coal mine and the ships that carried it. The Reading’s charter, however, prevented it from engaging in mining. So one of Gowen’s first acts as president was to convince the Pennsylvania Legislature to create a special entity that would be formed to develop coal in the Schuylkill region. Its stock would be available for purchase.

No sooner did the law pass than the Reading Railroad began buying the stock and pouring its money into the region’s mines. Eventually, the Reading would be the major coal operation in Schuylkill, operating as the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company.

The coal miners’ lives were a bitter struggle. The pay was low and the work extremely dangerous. A quarter of the workers were children between 7 and 16. The Irish immigrant miners had formed the Molly Maguires, who used guerilla tactics against the mine owners.

Molly Maguires

When Gowen took control of the Reading in 1870, it was at the heart of the Molly Maguires disputes that had rocked the region since 1833. Gowen decided to escalate. He reduced wages for his workers, guaranteeing a high level of violence in the region. He hired the Pinkerton Detective Agency to infiltrate the group. The Pinkertons passed along information to vigilantes who murdered the Maguires and their families if the state couldn’t execute them legally.

Throughout the period, the railroads and mines persistently sought to lower wages. All the while the railroad executives traveled the rails in luxurious private rail cars and vacationed abroad. The excess and inequality frequently caused strikes. No sooner would one strike end then the companies would cut wages and prompt another strike. One particularly long strike in 1877 included a massacre of railroad men in Reading.

Throughout the chaos, the Reading held a virtual monopoly on anthracite coal. During this period it used dubious means to make money: It fixed prices with other mines, delayed and limited shipments from competitors that would not cooperate, and manipulated its stock both up and down. One of the company’s clever tricks was to charge exorbitant shipping fees to the mining company that it owned to carry its coal. The mining company would borrow the millions to pay the fees, and then the railroad would record the loan proceeds as revenue even though it would need to repay the loans.

Gowen took the company into bankruptcy twice, and after 10 years he began losing his grasp on it. J.P. Morgan finally ousted him. In 1887, with the railroad in receivership, Morgan created a trust to run it with Austin Corbin as president. Corbin reorganized the line to much fanfare, but his tenure would not last long.

Hiring Scabs

Virtually his first act as president was to reignite old fights with the miners, and he managed to extend the fight to the more reserved railroad engineers. From December 1887 to April, 1888, the Reading was beset with strikes. Corbin managed to bring in strikebreakers.

Congress hauled him to Washington to face charges that he provoked a strike by lying that he would raise wages. That let him push coal prices higher and hire scabs at lower wages. Congress exposed the Reading’s fiddling of its books and rigging of coal prices. The company subsequently took a beating in the press.

Austin Corbin also infuriated the congressional committee members by offering to take them to Reading in a posh, private rail car. In that era, people viewed such blatant efforts at bribery as at least somewhat shameful.

People who worked for a living viewed Austin Corbin with derision. The Locomotive Firemen’s Magazine, for example, published an article about the strike. In it, Austin Corbin was described as belonging to ‘that tribe of human monsters who prey upon poor men, who combine the natures of hog and shark, who, being influenced by greed, make war upon the weak, regardless of right.’

For Austin Corbin, however, criticism from his own kind caused greater problems. While Morgan had cleared out the competition for the Reading once, the remnants of the old management weren’t entirely silenced. The trust had control, but the stockholders were still eager to play games with the company.

Critics

Corbin’s critics constantly needled him. They accused him, for instance, of filling coal cars and putting them on sidings. That way he drove up coal prices by preventing competitors from using them to ship coal. And his critics damaged him seriously when they uncovered another example of his self-dealing.

As the Reading struggled, it could not maintain lease payments to a New Jersey railroad over which it shipped coal. That resulted in a loss to the Reading and a gain to the New Jersey line. Using this information, Corbin heavily invested in the New Jersey rail line.

This kind of manipulation was commonplace among railroad barons, but it resonated with investors who perceived management was more interested in personal profit than the operations of the company.

Austin Corbin beat back his critics, and shareholders selected him to continue on as president. But in 1890 he did an about-face and resigned. It’s unclear why. Did he face new allegations? Had Morgan lost faith in him? Or had he simply realized the company was headed for disaster once again? Because in 1893 the Reading again defaulted.

This time, it signaled the start of the nationwide depression of 1893, which brought years of hardship for the country.

It would be impossible to catalog or reconstruct all of Corbin’s railroading schemes. However, in part two of this article we look at some of his other ventures.

To continue to part two of this article, click here. This story about Austin Corbin was updated in 2024.

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Classic Movies Shot in New England, 13 Award-Winners

Hundreds of filmmakers have come to New England since the turn of the last century and some have shot classic movies here.

It isn’t just because autumn leaves and church steeples make the perfect backdrop for classic movies. New England’s history and literary tradition provide rich material for stories and characters set against quaint fishing villages, gritty mill cities, Gilded Age resorts and Ivy League campuses.

New England’s Classic Movies

Familiar New England themes appear again and again in film. The theme of the salty sea captain fighting a sea monster inspired classic movies from Moby Dick through Jaws to The Perfect Storm. Family secrets inspired Eugene O’Neill’s fictional Ah Wilderness in 1906 as well as the true story of a suspected murder in Reversal of Fortune in 1990. And haunted New England was a favorite theme long before Stephen King arrived on the scene.

New England characters populate many classic movies shot in the region. They include the Boston Brahmin, the rustic Yankee, the stalwart fisherman, the town gossip and the outsider struggling to assimilate.

Characters from New England literature also populate many classic movies. Filmmakers first shot Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter in New England in 1909 and remade it four times as a feature film, three as a television production. But because it’s literary doesn’t make it good; Demi Moore starred as Hester Prynne in the 1995 remake of Scarlet Letter. It bombed at the box office and earned seven Golden Raspberries including “Worst Remake or Sequel.”

Here is a baker’s dozen of classic movies shot on location in all six states.

Boomerang

When a murderer takes the life of a kindly priest on a street corner, a prosecutor fights to prove the accused man innocent. The true story of Boomerang actually took place in Bridgeport, Conn., but the filmmakers couldn’t get permission to film there.

Elia Kazan, who directed many classic movies, shot the 1947 film in Stamford, Conn., instead.

He directed an all-star cast including Dana Andrews, Lee J. Cobb, Jane Wyatt and Karl Malden. Playwright Arthur Miller appeared uncredited as a suspect in the police lineup.

Boomerang received an Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay. Kazan also won Best Director awards from the National Board of Review and the New York Film Critics Circle.

Homer Cummings, the real-life prosecutor who inspired the film, served as U.S. attorney general under Franklin Roosevelt.

Boomerang, filmed in Connecticut, Maine and New Hampshire.

The Boston Strangler

This true-crime film about the serial killer who terrorized the Boston area from 1962-64 starred Tony Curtis and Henry Fonda. As shooting was set to begin in 1968, the man believed to be the Strangler — Albert DeSalvo –escaped from the mental institution where he was held. DeSalvo was captured 33 hours later. Ed Brooke was elected U.S. senator after coordinating the hunt for the killer. “The Boston Strangler” was filmed in Boston, Cambridge and Malden. It received Eddie, Edgar and Oscar nominations. DeSalvo died in prison (where he made choker necklaces for sale) in 1973. His family is still trying to exonerate him.

The Boston Strangler was mostly shot in Boston.

The Trouble With Harry

Just about all of Alfred Hitchcock’s films are classic movies, and The Trouble With Harry is no exception. The trouble with Harry in the film is that he was dead. Hitchcock’s 1955 dark comedy starring John Forsythe and Shirley MacLaine was filmed in Morrisville, Barre and Craftsbury Commons. The crew arrived in Craftsbury on September 27, 1954 to film outdoor shots of fall foliage. Unfortunately, there wasn’t any, so they glued leaves on trees. It was nominated for three awards, including BAFTA, Directors’ Guild and Satellite for “Outstanding Classic DVD” in 2005.

Jerry Mathers in The Trouble With Harry, filmed in Craftsbury, Vermont.

The Stepford Wives

A 1975 take on the theme of haunted New England, the film takes place in the fictional Connecticut town of Stepford. Johanna Eberhart moves there with her family and soon discovers a sinister truth behind the perfect behavior of the town’s housewives — they’re robots.

Bryan Forbes shot the film in Connecticut, including Redding, Fairfield, Westport, Weston, Darien (at the Goodwives Shopping Center) and Norwalk at the Lockwood-Mathews Mansion.) Katharine Ross, who stars as Johanna, won the 1976 Golden Scroll Best Actress award.

Stepford Wives enjoyed moderate success at first, but evolved into a cult classic over time.

The Stepford Wives, filmed at the Goodwives Shopping Center in Darien, Conn.

Lost Boundaries

This 1949 drama fictionalized the true story of Albert Johnson, a light-skinned African-American doctor. Johnson passes for white in a small northern New Hampshire town.

Starring Mel Ferrer and Beatrice Pearson, director Alfred Werker shot Lost Boundaries in Kennebunkport, Me. (church scene), York (Nubble Light) and Portsmouth, N.H.

In one scene, the doctor takes a Coast Guard boat from Portsmouth to the Isles of Shoals, six nautical miles away. He lands in York, however, quite farther away.

The film won Best Screenplay at the Cannes Film Festival in 1949.

Lost Boundaries, fimed in Portsouth, New Hampshire.

Jaws

Jaws was the first of the summer classic movies released in thousands of theaters and advertised heavily. The 1975 blockbuster featured a simple premise — the hunt for a man-eating shark that terrorized beachgoers.

The most successful film in box office history at the time, it set a precedent. Director Steven Spielberg filmed Jaws mostly in Menemsha on Martha’s Vineyard.

It won many awards, including three Academy Awards for Best Film Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, and Best Sound. In 2001, Congress voted to include it in the National Film Archive as “culturally significant.”

The author, Peter Benchley, later felt guilty about unfairly maligning the Great White Shark, a creature generally uninterested in eating human beings.

Jaws, filmed in Menemsha, belongs to the pantheon of classic movies shot in New England.

The Great Gatsby

This 1974 film starring Robert Redford as self-made millionaire Jay Gatsby featured the Newport, R.I., mansion Rosecliff as his home. Another mansion, the Vanderbilt’s Marble House, provided interior scenes.

The original Long Island mansion that inspired F. Scott Fitzgerald to write the novel fell to the wrecking ball in 2011. Stanford White designed Rosecliff in 1902 for Nevada silver heiress Theresa Fair Oelrichs.

The Great Gatsby also featured Hammersmith Farm, another famous Newport property where Sen. John F. Kennedy married Jacqueline Bouvier.

The Great Gatsby, which also starred Mia Farrow, received two Academy Awards for Best Costume Design and Best Music.

Robert Redford in the Great Gatsby, filmed in Newport, Rhode Island.

Peyton Place

New Hampshire writer Grace Metalious’ best selling book Peyton Place inspired the 1957 movie of the same name. It starred Lana Turner and Hope Lange.

Director Mark Robson shot the film mostly in Camden, Maine, with some exteriors filmed in the Maine towns of Belfast and Rockland, Gilmanton, N.H., and Lake Placid, N.Y.

Peyton Place employed as many as 500 local residents as extras. Most of them donated their earnings — $10 or so — for a new hospital.

The film premiered in Camden two days before everyone else saw it. Peyton Place didn’t do well at the box office for the first four months. Then, Lana Turner’s daughter killed her mother’s mobster lover, Johnny Stompanato. It then became the second-highest grossing film of 1958.

Peyton Place received nine Oscar nominations, including four for supporting performances.

A scene from Peyton Place shot in Camden, Maine.

Love Story

Love Story, the highest grossing film of 1970, was a romantic tragedy based on the wildly popular novel of the same name. It starred Ryan O’Neal as the preppy Harvard student Oliver Barrett IV. Ali MacGraw played the working-class Italian “Cliffie” doomed to an early death.

The American Film Institute placed Love Story in its pantheon of classic movies, calling it one of the most romantic films of all time. Production at Harvard caused such damage to the campus that the university denied future requests to film there.

The movie was also shot in Massachusetts at the frame house at 119 Oxford St. in Cambridge. There, MacGraw’s character utters the famous line, “Love means never having to say your sorry.” Love Story received nominations for seven Academy Awards, winning one for Best Music, Original Score.

Our Town

A 1940 adaptation of Thornton Wilder‘s play Our Town about family conflict in a small town, this classic movie was shot in Peterborough, N.H. It starred William Holden and Martha Scott.

The town served as the real model for the play, written by Wilder while in residence at the MacDowell Colony in Peterborough. Wilder probably named the fictional town of Grovers Corners for Peterborough’s Grove Street. The film received six Academy Award nominations. See the full film here.

Captains Courageous

Spencer Tracy — in curls — played a Portuguese fisherman who rescues Harvey Cheyne, played by Freddie Bartholomew. Captains Courageous begins when Cheyne, a railroad magnate’s spoiled son, gets thrown overboard from an ocean liner.

The 1937 film adapted a book written by Rudyard Kipling in 1897 when he lived in Brattleboro, Vt.

Director Victor Fleming shot scenes in Gloucester, Mass., as well as in California with fish flown in from Alaska and Boston. Gloucester has also provided settings for quite a few classic movies, including Mutiny on the Bounty and The Perfect Storm.

The film received four Oscar nominations. Spencer Tracy won the first of two consecutive Best Actor awards for Captains Courageous; he won for Boys Town in 1938.

Spencer Tracy starred in many classic movies; Captains Courageous, with Freddy Bartholomew, was one of them.

The Thomas Crown Affair

Thomas Crown, a debonair bank executive, thinks he pulled off the perfect bank robbery in this 1968 crime drama.

Steve McQueen starred as Crown, while Faye Dunaway played the insurance investigator who will do anything to get her man.

Director Norman Jewison filmed The Thomas Crown Affair in a number of well-known (and still recognizable) Boston-area locations, including Beacon Hill, the North End, Cambridge Cemetery, the Tobin Bridge, the Allston-Brighton toll booth, Crane Beach in Ipswich and Anthony’s Pier 4 Restaurant.

The second Harrison Gray Otis house, designed by Charles Bulfinch for a congressman, appeared as Crown’s house. The Thomas Crown Affair won an Oscar for Best Song, Windmills of Your Mind.

Steve McQueen and Faye Dunaway on Crane Beach in Ipswich, Mass.

High Society

This 1956 musical remake of The Philadelphia Story starred Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra and Grace Kelly. Kelly, who starred in many classic movies, retired after making High Society to marry Prince Albert of Monaco.

Cole Porter wrote the score and Louis Armstrong appeared as himself. Sinatra and Kelly appear driving together in a scene along Ocean Boulevard in Newport, R.I.

Director Charles Walters filmed interiors at a Newport mansion later purchased by Sunny von Bulow. Prosecutors later accused her husband Claus von Bulow of murdering her in the mansion. That story then inspired another film in 1990, Reversal of Fortune.

High Society received nominations for two Oscars, Best Musical, Original Song, and Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture.

Grace Kelly and Frank Sinatra on the set of High Society.

If you enjoyed this story, you might also want to read about historic New England movie sets and six places New England films were shot.

Images: Menemsha by User:Elkman – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Menemsha.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1350749. Boston Strangler By Source, Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26732719. Our Town By Source, Fair use, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7159045. Love Story https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6778617.

This story about classic movies shot in New England was updated in 2024.

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Joseph Pierce: The Civil War Service of a Connecticut Chinese

The American Civil War was first and foremost a clash between Americans in the North and the South. But it still attracted a large contingent of foreign nationals, fighting for both sides. German, Irish, English, Scots, Welsh, Polish, French, Italian, Scandinavian, Canadian, Mexicans, Hawaiians, Native Americans and even Chinese joined the fight. Most, but not all, fought for the Union. The names and stories of men like Joseph Pierce tend to get pushed aside in the narrative of a war fought, after all, over the issue of slavery.

Joseph Pierce was born about 1842 in Guangdong, Qing Empire (modern China). However, both his real name, and the exact date of his birth are unknown. Pierce himself claimed his birth date as Nov. 16, 1842. What is known about his early life begins in 1853 when an American ship captain from Berlin, Conn., named Amos Peck somehow “acquired” him. He either paid the boy’s father $6 or the paid boy’s older brother considerably more.

The trade in “coolie” labor (literally “bitter labor”) had reached its height at the time. In 1855, the British and Chinese governments banned the trade. They left it, not surprisingly, to the slave-trading United States to dominate it. Probably the family viewed the boy as an added burden, and they saw a way to ease the burden and get some needed money.

Chinese indentured servant (“Coolie”) being whipped aboard ship. Harper’s Magazine, 1864.

Becoming Joseph Pierce

While the buying and selling of human beings is slavery, that was not to be the case for the young Chinese. Exactly why Captain Peck took the boy is not known. But what is clear is that the relationship was not one of master and slave or indentured servant.

Given Captain Peck’s future conduct, it is clear that he saw it his duty to “rescue” the boy and offer him a better life. The 9-10-year-old Chinese boy joined the ship’s crew – not all that unusual for a boy of that age. Probably because the crew could not pronounce his name, they took to calling him “Joe,” and by default that became his first name. His last name, “Pierce,” apparently evolved from the fact that Franklin Pierce served as president of the United States in 1853.

When Captain Peck and the now Joseph Pierce arrived back in Connecticut, the family treated Joseph not as a possession but as one of them. He attended school and went to church with the family.

The United States had no immigration laws during most of the 19th century in America, and the individual states mostly decided on citizenship status.

All in the Family

There is no indication that Pierce had any real problems integrating into the Connecticut society in Berlin. Peck, still a ship’s captain, left for long periods on voyages. If Pierce was to be accepted or rejected as a family member, these long absences offered an opportunity for either one. But Peck’s wife Eliza, took, Joseph into the fold. She taught him to read and write. Along with the rest of his new brothers and sisters, she sent him to school.

Interestingly, Peck’s voyages to China kept him involved in the coolie trade. However, he was swiftly becoming disgusted by its brutality. In fact, the only real difference between the African slave trade and the coolie trade was the color of the skin of the “cargo.”

Illustration of the port of Amoy, where many Chinese labourers were shipped to foreign lands.

Pvt. Joseph Pierce

When the Civil War began in 1861, Joseph Pierce was now about 19 years old and thoroughly Americanized. He undoubtedly would have followed the progress of the fighting. Most likely he would have seen at least a couple of the young men he knew enlist. Then on Aug. 23, 1862, the 14th Connecticut Volunteer Infantry Regiment mustered at Camp Foot near Hartford. On Aug. 26, 1862, Joseph Pierce enlisted in the regiment at New Britain, in Company F, as a private for a three-year term. At the time of his enlistment, he was described as 5’ 5” tall, with dark hair, black eyes and, not surprisingly, a dark complexion. When Pierce enlisted, the 14th Connecticut had already left for Washington, D.C., and he would have joined them there.

It should be remembered that in 1862, Blacks were not allowed to fight for the Union. The Union Army was white. But since Pierce joined along with other men and friends from the Berlin area, he would have been already accepted as part of the community and his origin overlooked.

Antietam

Less than a month later, on Sept. 16-17, 1862, the largely untrained 14th Connecticut and Joseph Pierce fought in the bloodbath at Antietam in its baptism of fire. The regiment’s monument at Antietam describes the action:

Advanced to this point in a charge about 9:30 A.M., September 17th , 1862, then fell back eighty-eight yards to the cornfield fence and held position heavily engaged nearly two hour; then was sent to the support of the first brigade of its division at the Roulette Lane two hours; then was sent to the extreme left of the first division of this Corps to the support of Brooke’s Brigade and at 5 P. M. was placed in support between the Brigades of Caldwell and Meagher of that Division overlooking ‘Bloody Lane,’ holding position here until 10 A. M. of the 18th when relieved.

Confederate dead lie in the “Bloody Lane” after the Battle of Antietam, 1862

At Antietam, the regiment lost 38 killed, 88 wounded and 21 missing. Antietam saw the greatest loss of American lives in a single day in history. It was a rude awakening to Joseph and the men of the 14th Connecticut to the realities of war. During the battle, Joseph fell while climbing over a fence, injuring his back. Sent to a Union hospital in Alexandria, Va., he stayed there off and on. At some point he worked as a hospital orderly. Then in May 1863, he rejoined his regiment, probably in time to participate in the Battle of Chancellorsville on May 1-5, 1863.

From Chancellorsville, the Army of the Potomac, including Pierce and the 14th Connecticut, began the Gettysburg Campaign. They followed Robert E. Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia north into Pennsylvania. The regiment arrived at Gettysburg on the evening of July 1, 1863 and went into line on Cemetery Ridge. Of the over 1,000 men who marched out of Connecticut in August 1862, only about 160 men were present for duty at Gettysburg less than a year later.

Gettysburg

About halfway between the Union line on Cemetery Ridge and the Confederate line on what is now Confederate Avenue, sat the 60-acre William & Adelina Bliss Farm. It did not take long for Confederate pickets to occupy the farmhouse and barn and begin serious sniping on the Union Line. The farm would change hands three times over the next day and a half as both sides tried to push the other back. Eventually, on the morning of July 3, the 14th Maine was ordered to take and hold the barn and house. But shortly after the order was given, it was modified, to allow them to burn the house and barn if it got too “hot.”

However the regiment had now charged several hundred yards under fire and had retaken the area, driving the Confederates back into the farm orchard. The first messenger with the new order was wounded. A second messenger, Sgt. Charles Hitchcock of the 11th New York, made his way through a gauntlet of fire with orders to torch everything. By now, the 14th Connecticut had discovered why it was so difficult to hold on to the buildings. The barn was poorly sited to take the house under effective fire with no firing ports facing the house, and the house itself was more a bullet sieve than a place of cover.

Getting the new order, the regiment put the house and the barn to the torch and fell back to their line on Cemetery Ridge under rifle and cannon fire, taking their 20 dead and wounded with them. The respite would be short lived since sometime after noon – no one knows the exact time – the Confederates started their bombardment of Cemetery Ridge in prelude to the grand charge.

A Soldier of Commendable Bravery

An article written by Chenyu Zhang, entitled “’A Soldier of Commendable Bravery and Pluck:’ Joseph Pierce’s Struggle for Citizenship” describes his actions at Gettysburg as follows:

Pierce went out first on the skirmish line on July 2, and volunteered for the attack on the Bliss farm on July 3. Upon capturing the Bliss farm, Pierce and his men struggled to capture the house as the rear of the barn provided no openings to shoot from. ‘[The men] had received orders to capture the buildings ‘to stay’ and the faithful men know no other course than to obey commands’ The detail returned triumphant with the building set aflame behind them…The day was far from over and Pierce would help repulse Pickett’s Charge…

The Union Line under Confederate bombardment at Cemetery Ridge

For Pierce and the Union soldiers all along Cemetery Ridge, waiting for an attack that all knew was coming would have been a form of mental torture. Over 100 Confederate guns began a two-hour bombardment of the Union line, primarily aimed at Union gun positions. Fortunately for the Union, the Confederate artillery was badly manned and aimed. Most rounds were fired high. This, of course, was hindsight for the Union soldiers. So, at the time, the fear would have been very palpable when they had to sit for two hours listening to the deafening roar and crash of shells, unable to respond.

The 14th Connecticut

Joseph Pierce would have manned the low wall protecting the men of the 14th Connecticut as they huddled under the incessant Confederate cannon fire. It lifted as 12,000 Confederate troops began the mile-long charge wrongly referred to as Picket’s Charge. Picket’s Division was just one of several Confederate divisions involved, and the 14th Connecticut would fight on the right of the Union line. That included fighting elements of the 13th Alabama, 26th North Carolina and 14th Tennessee Regiments.

Zhang’s article goes on to say:

…Pierce ‘carefully stuffed his long queue down the back of his dirty uniform shirt and pulled lightly on the breech of his Sharp’s to double check its load.’ The breech-loading Sharp’s rifles allowed Pierce and his men to fire ‘so rapidly that the barrels became to hot to use, and they poured precious water from their canteens to cool the barrel.’ The Confederate lines broke quicker in front of Pierce’s regiment than anywhere else,…

Monuments to 14th Connecticut Infantry Regiment (dedicated in 1884), 1st Massachusetts Sharp Shooters (dedicated 1886) and 1st Rhode Island Light Artillery (dedicated 1886) with other monuments in background on Hancock Avenue, at Gettysburg

The monument for the 14th Connecticut at Gettysburg states the following:

“The 1th C.V reached the vicinity of Gettysburg at evening July 1st, 1863, and held this position [on Cemetery Ridge] July 2nd, 3rd and 4th. The regt. took part in the repulse of Longstreet’s grand charge on the 3rd, capturing in their immediate front more than 200 prisoners and five battle-flags. They also, on the 3rd, captured from the enemy’s sharp-shooters the Bliss buildings in their far front, and held them until ordered to burn them. Men in action 160, killed and wounded 62.”

Cpl. Joseph Pierce

Fewer than 100 men were fit for duty on the morning of July 4 when the Confederates retreated. Joseph Pierce was one of the lucky ones.

When the fight ended, Pierce and other men were detailed to tend to the Confederate wounded lying in front of their position. The regiment held the position for one more night until it was evident that Lee had retreated. Then began a three-month movement following Lee back into Virginia. The 14th Connecticut saw minor action in the Bristoe Campaign on Oct. 9-22, 1863. It also saw some action in the Mine Run Campaign of Nov. 26-Dec. 2, 1863. Then the regiment went into winter quarters at Stoney Mountain, Va.

In the midst of all this, Joseph Pierce won promotion to corporal on Nov. 1, 1863.

Joseph Pierce, by William Hunt

When the war started, rank was generally more of a popular affair than one of skill and competence. By this stage of the war however, rank, particularly enlisted rank, almost always went to the ones most qualified to hold it. The rank of corporal is a leadership rank. Pierce’s promotion says much of his ability, leadership and courage under fire. It also clearly indicates racial prejudice was not an issue in the 14th Connecticut. It was the highest rank of any of the approximately 50 Chinese that served in the Civil War.

The Face of the Army

Then in February 1864, Corporal Pierce came down with acute rheumatism. The condition is described as: “…characterized by swelling, tenderness, and redness of many joints of the body. It is a part of rheumatic fever. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a similar condition that happens when the immune system attacks your own tissues and causes joint pain, swelling, and stiffness.” Sickness in various forms was a staple of Civil War camp life, and a greater killer and disabler than combat. Acute rheumatism would have made it almost impossible for Pierce to continue active campaigning. On Feb. 29, 1864, he was sent on recruiting duty, presumably back to Connecticut to refill the depleted ranks of the regiment. Again, Zhang notes: “On recruiting duty, Pierce became the face of the Union Army and the United States.”

Since by this time, the 14th Connecticut was in great need of new blood, the fact that Pierce was trusted as a recruiter speaks volumes for the regiments respect for his character over his color and origin.

Apparently, Pierce rejoined the 14th Connecticut in time to participate in Grant’s Overland Campaign. Pierce’s record is unclear after his return, but the 14th Connecticut fought in a series of fierce battles including the Battle of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, Totopotomoy, and Cold Harbor. The regiment then went on to take part in the First Assault on Petersburg on June 15-18, 1864, and in many of the battles that evolved around the Siege of Petersburg until April 2, 1865, culminating in the assault and fall of Petersburg. Pierce and the 14th Connecticut took part in the Appomattox Campaign and were present on April 9, 1865 when Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House.

The Grand Review

After the surrender, the regiment moved north, leading the 2nd Corps of the Army of the Potomac as it left Petersburg, marching through Richmond enroute to Washington, D.C. On May 23, 1865, Pierce and the 14th Connecticut took part in the Grand Review when 145,000 Union soldiers marched from the U.S. Capitol to the White House in celebration of their victory.

The Grand Review by Matthew Brady

Cpl. Joseph Pierce mustered out on either May 30 or 31, 1865. He then traveled with the regiment to Hartford, where the army formally released them from service. A civilian once again, Joseph returned to the land and took up farming for a short time in New Britain. Sometime between 1865 and 1868 he became a naturalized citizen. Farming didn’t last long, and in 1868 he the New Britain Excise Tax List described him as a “peddler.” Another source indicates that he moved to Meriden and learned the trade of silver engraving over the next two years. He followed that profession for the rest of his life.

Joseph Pierce, civilian

Life for Joseph Pierce maintained a normal pace, unhindered by his race. Described by his friends and neighbors as very fashionable, a picture from the time shows a handsome young man immaculately dressed. He still had his distinctive pigtail. Keeping the pigtail clearly indicates that he did not attempt to hide his origins.

Sometime around 1875-early 1876, Pierce became acquainted with Martha A. Morgan, an 18-year-old American girl from Portland, Conn. And on Nov. 12, 1876, the Reverand R. S. Eldridge of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Branford married the couple. The union would produce two daughters and two sons.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Reflecting more current times, anti-immigration and racism again raised its ugly head in 1882. Congress that year passed the Chinese Exclusion Act. The Coolie Prohibition Act had been passed in 1862, meant at the time as an adjunct to anti-slavery acts since coolies were seen as forced labor. But it had not stopped Chinese from freely immigrating after the war. This large influx of Chinese now was seen as a problem. Up to 1882, the federal government did not control immigration, leaving it up to the states.

The Chinese Exclusion Act was the real start of a federal immigration system. The act was callously effective and basically stopped Chinese from entering the country for decades. In 1892 the act was broadened to require “certificates of residency,” the precursor to green cards, that required all Chinese, including naturalized Chinese, to register. For Joseph Pierce, it set a dangerous precedent, and a pretense reflected in modern times. Zhang’s article notes: “In 1894, four newspapers, including one from as far as Arizona territory, reported on Pierce’s fear of deportation. The New York Tribune states the following:

Joseph Piece, and American citizen of Meriden, Conn., has been in this country since he was 10 years old, served through the Civil War, and is now on the pension rolls, but as he was born in Canton, China, he has been ordered by the Internal Revenue Collector of Meriden to register as a Chinaman, under the Geray Act. Jospeh naturally objects, as he fears his registration may lead to deportation after May 1.”

Unlike modern times, however, Joseph’s adopted community rallied behind him and supported him. By 1900, the Meriden residents had convinced the federal government that Joseph was actually Japanese. The 1900 and 1910 census records reflect that, and list all his family as “white.”

Joseph Pierce, Proud Veteran

Joseph Pierce remained proud of his Civil War service for the rest of his life, attending several veterans’ reunions. Zhang’s paper states regarding one veteran’s reunion: “‘Joe’ was a great favorite with us, as was evident from the hearty, vociferous round of applause with which he was greeted by the boys as he entered the hall at our recent meeting, his bright eyes snapping and sparkling in his honest face as they were wont to years ago.”

Illness plagued Joseph’s last years. So, in 1907, he petitioned to increase his 1890 Civil War Service pension due to his medical problems. He died on Jan. 3, 1916, from influenza compounded by chronic bronchitis and the arteriosclerosis that had troubled him since 1864. He was buried in the Walnut Grove Cemetery in Meriden, Conn.

Joseph’s wife, Martha Morgan Pierce, died in 1926. The couple’s son Franklin Norris Pierce was born in 1882 and died in 1952. Their second son, Howard Benjamin Pierce, was born in 1884 and died in 1959. Their daughter Lula Edna Pierce’s birthdate in unknown but she died very young in 1895. Little is known about a fourth daughter, Edna Berta Pierce. It would appear that neither of the sons married.

Images: Monuments Mumper & Co, photographer. Monuments to 14th Connecticut Infantry Regiment dedicated in , 1st Massachusetts Sharp Shooters dedicated 1886 and 1st Rhode Island Light Artillery dedicated 1886 with other monuments in background on Hancock Avenue, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania / Mumper & Co., Gettysburg, Pa. Gettysburg United States Pennsylvania, None. [Gettysburg, pa.: mumper & co., between 1886 and 1900] [Photograph] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2024640868/.

Union Line on Cemetery Ridge:(ca. 1887) Battle of Gettysburg. , ca. 1887. May 16. [Photograph] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2003663828/.

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Early Gravestone Carvers of New England

Early gravestones in New England were as varied as the men who carved them. The artistic designs of the early gravestone carvers changed over time as beliefs about religion and death evolved. The oldest stones were carved on slate, featuring skulls and crossbones, the symbols of mortality. These gradually evolved, as later carvers began to suggest life and resurrection with more hopeful angels and winged cherubs. After 1800, the use of urns and willows became fashionable.

Close-up of urn and willow engraving on an early gravestone in Searsport, Maine

Here are some examples from “Gravestones & Puritanism”.

Early Gravestone Carvers

Carving often ran in families, with fathers passing their trade on to sons and grandsons. Although many learned as apprentices and sometimes copied their masters’ designs, they also developed their own artistic style.

There were hundreds of gravestone carvers throughout colonial New England. The following contains brief biographies on nine of them, with some links to gravestone images.

A Pair of Prolific Gravestone Carvers

William Buckland (1727-1795), Manchester, Conn., and Peter Buckland (1738-1816), Rutland, Vt.

William Buckland and his brother Peter were both prolific carvers, carving hundreds of gravestones in and around Manchester. They lived in the area known as “Five Miles,” named for the five-mile tract purchased from the Indians in 1672. Both brothers apprenticed with Gershom Bartlett, a well-known stone carver who created faces on his stones with bulbous noses, which the Bucklands also copied. William tended to work in sandstone while Peter more often used granite.

An early gravestone by Peter Buckland

After serving in the Revolutionary War, William moved to Poultney, Vt., in about 1783. he occasionally made some spelling errors, such as a backward p and N and he once spelled boody for body (probably the way it was pronounced!), according to “The Gravestones Carvers of Rutland County, Vermont,” edited by Margaret Jenks, 2016.

William died in 1795 and is buried in Poultney, “Captain” Peter died in 1816 in East Hartford, Conn. Click on the link to several of Peter’s gravestones.

Connecticut Carvers

James Stanclift (1639-1712), East Middletown, Conn.

James was the first permanent settler in Middletown, which later became Portland. Carving gravestones was a family occupation for generations. It included sons William and James, and James’ sons James III and Comfort. They often carved using all capital letters, as seen in these examples. James, Jr., tended to make some careless mistakes.

Obadiah Wheeler (1673- ~1749) Lebanon, Conn.

Obadiah was “one of the great early carvers of eastern Connecticut,” according to the Old Plainfield Cemetery website. He probably apprenticed with John Hartshorne, as he used similar loops, curls and downswept winged cherubs. See a few examples here. Obadiah was another one known for some “original spelling” such as “Har Lis/Lise/Lyes”; “Fathar” and “Jenewary.” More information can be found in “The Colonial Gravestone Carvings of Obadiah Wheeler” by James A. Slater & Ernest Caulfield (click here).

A tombstone by Obadiah Wheeler

An Early Maine Carver

Bartlett Adams (1776-1828): Portland, Maine.

Bartlett was one of the first carvers in Portland, with the only shop in the area from 1800-1828. His stones were known for winged faces, rising suns and rosettes, according to the Spirits Alive website. He often advertised in the Portland Gazette. Born in Kingston, Mass., he died in Portland, Maine at age 52, buried in Eastern Cemetery.

Tombstone by Bartlett Adams on the grave of his son. It reads, The inscription reads “Memoriae sacrum/Bartlett, son of Bartlett Adams & Charlotte his wife/born July 5 & died December 30. AD 1806. Betwixt his birth & death, HOW SHORT THE SPACE?”

Another Father and Son

John Homer (1727-1803): Boston

Born in Boston, John often worked with his son William and was known for the prominent skull and crossbones on top of his gravestones. These can be found in cemeteries around Boston, Cape Cod and nearby states.

One unusual gravestone, that of Captain Tobias Lear (died 1781) found in Point of Graves cemetery in Portsmouth, N.H., combines his familiar skull and crossbones with the newer style of urn and willow. This was a very early use of the urn and willow. See the example from Sentinel Hill Press.

Besides carving gravestones, John was active in the politics of the day as a prominent member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives and the Sons of Liberty.

Headstone of Elizabeth Hurd, by John Homer, in the Granary Burying Ground

A Much-Burdened Carver

Solomon Ashley (1754-1823): Deerfield, Mass.

Solomon led a burdensome life. He was the son of the Rev. Jonathan Ashley of Deerfield, who antagonized his parishioners with his Tory leanings and was frequently in debt. Solomon was subject to fits of insanity and was also in debt. At one point he gave up carving. Then he landed in Northampton jail, where he suffered a self-inflicted stab wound, as mentioned in the Greenfield Recorder of Sept. 16, 1805.

Solomon’s carved stones often featured haunting mourning figures, perhaps mirroring his tortured state of mind. In 1824 he drowned himself in the Connecticut River at the age of 68.

More information can be found in the book “The Outcast Artisan: The Struggles of Gravestone Carver Solomon Ashley” by Frances Davey, 1991.

A New Hampshire Carver

John Wight (1702-1775): Londonderry, N.H.

According to the Sentinel Hill Press, John Wight came to New Hampshire in 1718 as a teenager with a group of Scots-Irish Presbyterians. Instead of the usual death faces used by the Puritan carvers, he used three symbols: a coffin, a heart and a geometrical star. Sometimes there was an hourglass. He also inscribed verses such as “My body turned into dust; My dust it shall rise; In resurrection of the just; To sound Jehovah’s praise.” This suggests the Presbyterian belief in mercy and resurrection, as opposed to the oftentimes Puritan assumption of damnation.

Common Burying Ground, Newport, R.I.

Early Gravestone Carvers of Rhode Island

John Bull (1734-1808): Newport, R.I.

John Bull was a rebellious character! As a teen, he was an indentured servant in Newport to his brother-in-law, William Stevens. However, they did not get along and John ran off to sea, eventually leading a mutiny. Later, he was also a rebellious stone carver, once defiantly sculpting a biblical scene on a gravestone, which was considered unthinkable in Newport, a Quaker stronghold at the time.

In later years, he was quite creative. There is a double gravestone in Newport which includes a young daughter (died 1780) of William and Desire Tripp, and a son (died 1784) and “also his wife’s arm amputated” (1786). Bull carved an arm in the center of the gravestone! (Click here to see it.)

The John Stevens Shop

Stevens Family: Newport, R.I.

The Stevens family carved gravestones for six generations. John Stevens (1646-1736) established his shop in Newport in 1705. By 1724 he had turned his business over to his son John II (1702-1778). His carving style featured a face or soul effigy with wings. William, another son of John I, married Ann Bull, sister of John Bull (above). The third generation included John III who carved some stones for people of African heritage. He was the only one to sign his gravestones. One stone that he signed was that of Pompey Brenton (his slave) in 1772, which featured a curly haired angelic figure. Here is further information on the Stevens family and John Bull from R.I.P. Newport.

The Stevens shop is still open today in Newport!

End Notes

Rebecca Rector of Troy, N.Y., is a history and genealogy researcher, and retired librarian from Siena College. She has been transcribing letters and diaries for Newberry Library and National Archives for the past three years.

Images: Featured image, gravestone by John Homer: By Ceoil – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=81757268. Peter Buckland By Gravestoneman – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=123860118. Gershom Bartlett headstone By Gravestoneman – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=154852815. Obadiah Wheeler gravestone By CoolGuySlate – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=107302977. Stevens shop By ajay_suresh – The John Stevens Shop – Newport, RI, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=110188717. Gravestone by Bartlett Adams by OldBoldLibrarian, CCO 1.0 Universal. Gravestone of Elizabeth Hurd By Rhododendrites – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=84156772. Common Burying Ground By Swampyank at English Wikipedia, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17984252. Urn and willow, By DrStew82 – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=60506902.

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The Tragedy of Hartford’s Exploding Schoolhouse

A celebration of the repeal of the despised Stamp Act turned tragic in Hartford, Conn., when six men died and dozens hurt in an exploding schoolhouse.

They were “young and newly married men” preparing a huge fireworks display to cap off the town’s big party. Church bells tolled, ships on the Connecticut River flew flags and cannons roared. A “general illumination” was to end the happy day.

Instead, some thoughtless boys, some scattered gunpowder and a little bit of fire resulted in catastrophe.

Stamp Act Repeal

Parliament had passed the Stamp Act in 1765 to help pay for the French and Indian Wars. The onerous tax – the equivalent of a day’s wage for most – met with violent protest. Riots and street protests broke out, and stamp collectors found themselves hanged in effigy or confronted by angry mobs. In Boston, rioters trashed the home of Lt. Gov. Thomas Hutchinson.

Repeal of the tax in 1766 led to huge celebrations.

Rhode Island declared a day of Thanksgiving, Philadelphia illuminated houses and gave out free beer and New York shot off cannons and rang church bells. Boston erected an obelisk under the Liberty Tree with painted transparencies portraying allegories of different phases of the struggle against the Stamp Act.

In Connecticut, the General Assembly declared May 23, 1766, a day of rejoicing. Hartford, then a town of a few thousand people, decided a huge fireworks display would comprise the “general illumination.”

The Exploding Schoolhouse

A history of Hartford published in 1886 tells the story of the exploding schoolhouse.

A number of young gentlemen had come together to make sky-rockets in an upper chamber of the brick school-house, while the powder stored in the room below was being distributed to the militia. Two companies of soldiers had just received a pound for each man, when the powder scattered by this delivery was thoughtlessly set on fire by boys, and in an instant the building was reduced to a heap of ashes, and twenty-eight persons were buried in its ruins, six of whom died after being taken out of the crumbling mass, and the others were more or less injured.

Two hundred men rushed to the scene to search the rubble for the dead and injured. According to a report, “Many were so much burnt and disfigured that their relatives did not know them. In short the scene of joy was immediately changed to the most gloomy ever known in this place.”

Hadstone in Hartford’s Ancient Burying Ground: “In Memory of Mr. Richard Bernham, Killed by ye Bloing up of ye School house June 1766 Aged 18 Years & 3 Months. Son to Mr. Elisha & Mrs. Sarah Bernham.”

It could have been worse. A minister reported that the men inside the schoolhouse had turned away a “considerable number of children” just before the explosion.

J.L. Bell, in his blog Boston 1775, published a list of the casualties from the 1836 book Connecticut Historical Collections, which in turn cited the Connecticut Gazette of May 31, 1766.

Casualties

Levi Jones, John Knowles, (an apprentice to Mr. Thomas Sloan, blacksmith,) and Richard Lord, (second son to Mr. John H. Lord,) died of their wounds, soon after they were taken from under the ruins of the building.
William Gardiner, merchant, had both his thighs broken. [He died soon after.]
Samuel Talcott, Jun., very much burnt in his face and arms.
James Tiley, goldsmith, had one of his shoulders dislocated, and some bruises in the other parts of his body.
John Cook, Jun., had his back and neck hurt much.
Ephraim Perry, slightly wounded.
Thomas Forbes, wounded in his head.
Daniel Butler, (the tavern-keeper’s son,) had one of his ancles put out of joint.
Richard Burnham, son to Mr. Elisha Burnham, had his thigh, leg and ancle broke. [He was nineteen years old, and later died of his injuries.]
Eli Wadsworth, (Capt. Samuel’s son,) is much wounded and burnt, in his face, hands, and other parts of his body.
John Bunce, Jun., (an apprentice to Mr. Church, Hatter,) wounded in the head.
Normand Morrison, (a lad that lives with Capt. Tiley,) a good deal burnt and bruised.
Roderick Lawrence, (Capt. Lawrence’s son,) slightly wounded.
William Skinner, (Capt. Daniel’s son,) had both his thighs broke.
Timothy Phelps, (son to Mr. Timothy Phelps, shop-joiner,) had the calf torn off from one of his legs.
Valentine Vaughn, (son of Mr. Vaughn, baker,) had his skull terribly broken.
Horace Seymour, (son of Mr. Jonathan Seymour, Jun.,) two sons of Mr. John Goodwin, a son of Mr. John Watson, and a son of Mr. Kellogg, hatter, were slightly wounded.
Two molatto and two negro boys were also wounded.

Finding the Exploding Schoolhouse

The story of the exploding schoolhouse had been pretty much forgotten until Connecticut Explored ran a story by Shawn R. Dagle about it in the Summer 2025 issue.

“This is probably one of the most tragic accidents in the history of Hartford,” Dagle said in a press release. “At the time it was essentially a ‘national’ story, covered by newspapers from here to Virginia, yet today it is virtually unknown.”

Kathy Hermes publilsher of Connecticut Explored, and Shawn Dagle, with the tombstone of William Gardiner, a victim of Hartford’s exploding schoolhouse

Connecticut Explored and the Grating the Nutmeg podcast tell the fascinating, often untold, stories of Connecticut’s people, places and events. Click here for more information.

Images courtesy of Connecticut Explored, except for the teapot.

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7 Fun Facts About Powder Ridge, the Rock Festival That Wasn’t

In the summer of 1970, concert promoters promised a mind-blowing, three-day rock festival at the Powder Ridge ski resort in Middlefield, Conn. On grassy slopes, the kids would listen to Fleetwood Mac, Sly and the Family Stone, James Taylor, Janis Joplin, Joe Cocker, Van Morrison and Little Richard — to name a few.

Promoters sold 60,000 tickets to the concert, which was to run from July 31 to August 2. Then on July 30, the Town of Middlefield stepped in and got a court order halting the show. The town posted warning signs on the roads leading to the ski resort, “Festival Prohibited, turn back.”

Thirty-thousand rock ‘n roll enthusiasts showed up anyway. “Kids Run the Rock Blockade to Beat the Ban” ran one headline.

A hippie in front of his tent at Powder Ridge

The kids found spots for their motorcycles, mattress-lined campers and psychedelic buses, then they set up camp with multicolored tents and flags. Without music, they turned their attention to taking drugs and roaming around naked. It was sex and drugs and no rock and roll, the greatest nonfestival ever.

Here are seven fun facts about the Powder Ridge Rock Festival.

1. Only one big-name artist showed up, Melanie.

The folk singer had just had an international hit, “Lay Down (Candle in the Wind),” inspired by her experience performing at Woodstock. She came and sang despite threats of arrest and a 10-year jail sentence. The state had shut down the electricity, hoping that would drive the kids away. So, Mister Softee ice cream trucks powered the stage. Officials discussed arresting Melanie, but decided against it when they learned she didn’t get paid for singing.

Some local bands did play, too, like Swan and The Mustard Family.

Melanie in 1970

2. Powder Ridge wasn’t the only rock festival cancelled by the courts.

Of the 48 concerts scheduled in 1970, local authorities stopped 30 of them with injunctions.

On Aug. 4, 1970, two days after Powder Ridge ended, a court order cancelled the Harmonyville Pop Festival in New Jersey.

3. It was supposed to be a second Woodstock. It wasn’t.

Powder Ridge lacked a certain something that made Woodstock so special. The New York Times reported,

The gentle euphoria—the grins, small smiles, and exchanged “V” signals— of people milling through the muddy fields of Bethel seemed to be missing at Powder Ridge. Instead, last night and this morning, the major pastime here was often shuffling walks along paved roads by grim-faced young men and women who looked remarkably similar to old people moving slowly along the boardwalks of the Rockaways or Atlantic City.

NBC News reporter Liz Trotta was more forgiving. She called Powder Ridge an “overcrowded country picnic.”

Woodstock Music and Art Festival

4. People called it the Powder Ridge Drug Festival.

Concertgoers were asked to drop drug donations into barrels of water, hence the name “electric water.” People took the resulting drug cocktails at their own risk, not knowing the strength or composition of what they were consuming.

William Abruzzi, known as the “Rock Doc” for treating young people at Woodstock, said the drug scene at Powder Ridge was the worst he’d ever seen. One day he said he treated about 30 bad trips an hour. A nearby middle school was turned into a temporary infirmary.

Some called it the Powder Ridge Drug Festival.

5. Some people in Middlefield welcomed the nonconcertgoers.

Police blockaded the roads to the ski resort, but locals could get through. They smuggled in food and set up a free kitchen. Twenty-five volunteers staffed it, serving rice, oats, vegetable stew, even peanut butter and jelly sandwiches.

One concertgoer later wrote, “One of the strongest memories was a Tractor Trailer FULL of Yogurt. A few hours later, people were throwing up purple yogurt all over the place. I guess yogurt and drugs don’t mix.”

6. No one got a refund.

Tickets cost $20, about $125 today. Ticket buyers were instructed to send check or money order with self-addressed envelope to an address on West 57th St. in New York. The promoters skipped town with the money; the ski resort owners got nothing.

7. A resurrection of the Powder Ridge festival didn’t happen either.

In 2024, Powder Ridge Ski Area CEO Sean Hayes announced a Powder Ridge Music Festival would take place October 4 and 5. A Grateful Dead cover band, Shakedown, was scheduled to play, and only 2,200 tickets would be sold.

The shows, however, didn’t happen. According to WFSB, Powder Ridge canceled them. But this time, at least, they were moved elsewhere—to the Westville Music Bowl in New Haven. Performers included the Violent Femmes, the Blues Travelers, Toad the Wet Sprocket and Gin Blossoms.

Images: Hippie on the slopes By Armandd – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7736195; Melanie By Armandd – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7777382. Woodstock By Derek Redmond and Paul Campbell – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=247702.

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7 Fun Facts About April 19, 1775

The date April 19, 1775 has been etched in the New England mind since it happened.

The storied events of the day started on April 18, 1775, around 9:30 p.m., when Paul Revere rode from Boston to Lexington, Mass., to warn John Hancock and Sam Adams the British were on their way to arrest them. He supposedly shouted “The British are coming,” only he didn’t, because he was British himself. Redcoats marched to Lexington, where patriot minute men lined up on the green. Someone fired a shot, setting off the American Revolution.

Then the redcoats marched to Concord, Mass., where they fought more patriots at Old North Bridge. The Lexington Alarm went out, and militia from neighboring towns shot up the retreating redcoats from behind stone walls.

Sort of.

The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere by Grant Wood

1. Paul Revere’s ride wasn’t that big a deal.

His obituary didn’t even mention it. The death notice featured his subsequent success as a businessman with many friends. The ride didn’t become famous until Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote a poem about it many years later.

Revere, of course, had a lot of help. Not just Billy Dawes or Samuel Prescott, either. Approximately 40 riders set out that night to warn that “the regulars are out!”

The battle at the Old North Bridge in Concord

2. Concord and Lexington.

The question, “Where was the shot heard round the world fired?” surfaced in 1824. Then the Marquis de Lafayette visited all 24 states to celebrate the 50th anniversary of independence. When he arrived in Lexington, people told him he’d reached the “birthplace of American liberty.” But then he went to Concord, where people told him the patriots made the “first forcible resistance” there.

That infuriated Lexington, having been deprived of “the honour of having raised the first standard of an armed opposition to the unjust and tyrannical measures of the mother country.”

So in 1825, the Lexington Town Meeting appointed a committee to publish a statement of facts about the April 19, 1775 affair, “as may be supported by undoubted testimony.”

From that testimony, Elias Phinney compiled a book. In it, he explained the confusion. Shortly after the battles, British Gen. Thomas Gage claimed the patriots fired the first shot. To refute that claim, witnesses in Lexington said the patriots hadn’t even fired.

But in the opening days of the war, Phinney wrote, no one wanted to admit that Lexington patriots had shot at British regulars. The outcome of the war was then far from certain, and militiamen identified as shooters could wind up on the gallows.

The argument went on for years. President Ulysses S. Grant in 1875 considered not showing up to the centennial celebration of April 19, 1775 because of the animosity between the two towns.

In 1894, Lexington petitioned the Massachusetts Legislature to proclaim April 19 as “Lexington Day.” Concord countered with a petition to call it “Concord Day.” Gov. Frederic T. Greenhalge came up with a compromise to honor the shot heard round the world: Patriots’ Day.

The Minute Man

3. The “Shot Heard Round the World” wasn’t uttered until 1837.

The anonymous first shot fired in anger or fear on April 19, 1775 may be best described as the shot heard round the world, but no one described it as such for more than 60 years after it was fired.
A poet came up with that graceful turn of phrase.
In the days after the hostilities broke out in Massachusetts, the incident was just another dustup between a group of uppity Americans and the British soldiers tasked with keeping order in the North American colonies. Then, as the scale of the hostilities became more apparent, the skirmishes of Lexington and Concord were eclipsed by pitched battles that stretched from Boston and Saratoga to Trenton and Yorktown.

The news account of the Battle of Lexington and Concord reprinted in newspapers around the colonies was prosaic and perfunctory: A general battle ensued which, from what we can learn, was supported with great Spirit on both sides, and continued until the King’s Troops reversed to Charlestown, which was after sunset. Numbers are kill’d and wounded on both Sides.

The reports concerning this unhappy affair and the causes that concurred to bring on an engagement, are so various that we are not able to collect anything confident or regular, and cannot therefore with certainty give our readers any further account of this shocking introduction to all the miseries of a civil war.

The poet and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson considered the enormity of the day’s events. His grandfather had watched the fight at Old North Bridge from a second-story window at The Old Manse. His grandson lived in the house. That may be why he gave the world the phrase, “the shot heard round the world,” part of “The Concord Hymn.” A chorus sung the words at the official unveiling of a The Minute Man statue by Daniel Chester French on July 4, 1837 (President Grant did come after all). It was set to the tune of “The Old Hundred,” a French melody dating to the 1500s.

Emerson clearly sided with Concord as the birthplace of the American Revolution.

By the rude bridge that arched the flood,
Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled,
Here once the embattled farmers stood
And fired the shot heard round the world.

thompson-maxwell-british-entering-concord

The British Entering Concord, by Amos Doolittle

4. The Weaponry Was So Lousy It’s Amazing Anyone Got Shot.

Some rudimentary math shows the unreliability of 18th century guns. The patriots, all told, started out with 77 men in Lexington and 400 in Concord. Then, when the Lexington Alarm sounded, their numbers swelled to 3,763, give or take. The British began with 700 regulars, but reinforcements brought their strength to 1,500.

Add in casualties: 49 patriots killed, 39 injured and five missing. The British suffered far worse casualties, mostly on the retreat: 73 killed, 174 wounded, 53 missing.

Historian Harry Schenawolf estimates the average patriot warrior fired off 18 rounds. That means, he wrote, that about 75,000 bullets were fired (making the battlefield a good spot for a metal detector). “Though weapons were fired at extremely close range, only one in fifteen patriots even nicked the shoulder of a redcoat,” wrote Schenawolf.

Jeremiah Lee, caught cold in a cornfield

5. Not all the deaths were caused by bullets.

Jeremiah Lee was one of the great lost leaders of the American Revolution. Lee, a Marblehead, Mass., shipping merchant, accumulated an enormous fortune. He owned a warehouse and wharf, a fleet of trading ships and fishing vessels, and he employed a great many sailors and tradesmen.

Lee believed British rule would soon ruin him and his fellow Marblehead merchants. So, he became a representative to the rebel Congress and began preparing for war. He imported cannons, powder and shot from Europe, and he established connections in Maryland and Virginia to buy war materiel. Lee also raised an interracial regiment of mariners and fishermen, and he would have led it had he lived. Instead, Col. John Glover took charge, and the Marbleheaders famously ferried Washington across the Delaware on Christmas Eve, 1776.

On the night of April 18, 1775, Lee met with his neighbor Elbridge Gerry, Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington. The men were plotting against the British. When Paul Revere warned the regulars were comng to arrest them (they weren’t), the men hid in a field overnight. New England weather being what it is, Lee developed pneumonia and died soon afterward – an early victim of the war.

Reenactors on the march to Lexington to commemorate the shot heard round the world.

6. The U.S. Army Got Started at David Brown’s Farm.

Officially, the Army recognizes June 14, 1775 as its birthday. The Continental Congress that day authorized one-year enlistments of riflemen to form the Continental Army.

However, just west of the Old North Bridge, minute men and militia gathered at David Brown’s farm. Together, in combat formation, they marched under orders toward the battle at the bridge. Today, the Stars and Stripes flies over what is now called the Muster Field. As an FYI, Minute men were highly mobile volunteers who trained more frequently; militia men were required by law to serve.

7. The Real Battle Took Place in Menotomy.

After the little skirmishes in Concord and Lexington, thousands of men from Eastern Massachusetts flocked to Menotomy, now Arlington. From behind trees and stone walls they shot at British troops. That battle resulted in 25 patriots and 40 British captured. Historian A. Michael Ruderman called Lexington an “accident,” Concord Bridge a “skirmish,” but Menotomy the “most brutal and deadly warfare of April 19, 1775.”

It took 230 years for Massachusetts to acknowledge one of the heroes of that battle–the oldest, bravest and craziest revolutionary.

Samuel Whittemore left his field in Menotomy, gathered his old weapons and positioned himself behind his stonewall.

When the regiment passed by, 78-year-old Samuel Whittemore stood and shot point-blank at a British regular with his musket. Then he took out his dueling pistols and shot two more soldiers to death.

The old farmer then grabbed his ornamental sword to fend off the British soldiers who swarmed over him. It didn’t go so well. The British shot him in the cheek, bayoneted him and beat him with the butts of their rifles.

When his family found him, they thought he was dead. But a doctor patched up Samuel Whittemore and he lived for another 18 years.

The Massachusetts Legislature declared him the official state hero in 2005.

* * *

Learn more Revolutionary history in this complete guide to Revolutionary War Sites in New England. Brought to you by the New England Historical Society. Click here to order your copy in paperback, here to order an ebook.

Images: Reenactors By Jrcovert – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19639046. Minute_Man_Statue_Lexington_Massachusetts.jpg: w:User:Daderot derivative work: Hohum (talk) – Minute_Man_Statue_Lexington_Massachusetts.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9425447.

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The Old Ship Church Outlasts Puritan Heritage

The Old Ship Church in Hingham, Mass., is the oldest continuous Puritan meetinghouse/church in the United States, dating from 1681.

Hingham, located about 17 miles southeast of Boston, lies on the southwestern side of Boston Harbor. In 1633 Puritan settlers called it “Bare Cove,” but then incorporated it as the town of Hingham two years later. In 1665 the Wampanoag tribe finally sold the land to the town.

Hingham distance marker

English Puritans led by the Rev. Peter Hobart (1604-1679) established the First Parish Church in Hingham in September 1635. They then quickly built a meetinghouse. This early meetinghouse, a small rudimentary structure , easily accommodated its families of farmers and skilled workers for worship. They also used it to conduct town business and elections.

Building Old Ship Church

As the population of Hingham grew from about 130 in 1635 to 750 in 1680, voters at a town meeting agreed to an assessment of 437 pounds to erect a new meetinghouse. Built in 1681 in a traditional English Gothic style, on land donated by Capt. Joshua Hobart (brother of Peter), it had a length of 35 feet and a breadth of 45 feet. Its posts were 20 feet high. Its main feature consisted of a vaulted ceiling made with curved oak beams that were light, but strong. Hewn by an ax, no two beams were alike.

Old Ship from the cemetery in the rear

After installation, the entire upper structure resembled an upside-down hull of a ship, which supported the weight of the roof. The plain interior of the meetinghouse had several unique characteristics. The wooden pulpit customarily faced eastward, toward Jerusalem; wooden benches were backless; large windows were square-shaped; two doors were constructed; the walls, both inside and outside, were clapboard ; and the belfry had a “lookout” facing the Atlantic Ocean.

The Old Ship Church in Hingham, Mass., didn’t have a stove until 1822. Photo courtesy Library of Congress.

When entering for worship, the parishioners had to adhere to a rigid seating arrangement based on gender and social status. Next to the pulpit were seats for the wife of the minister and the widow of Rev. Peter Hobart, who had died in 1679. Town leaders and elders sat in front; men and women were separated from each other; while younger members, “men servants, Negroes, and Indians” were relegated to the rear or the balconies. Heating or lighting did not exist.

The First Ministers

The Rev. John Norton (1650-1716) gave the first sermon on Jan. 8, 1682. When Rev. Norton died in 1716, Dr. Ebenezer Gay (1696-1787) became the third minister. He held unorthodox views of Arminianism, where people would achieve salvation through free will, not predestination. Eventually that led to the church embracing Unitarianism by the end of the 18th century. At some point in the late 19th century, the church became known as Old Ship.

The Old Ship Church in 1933.

Major renovations to the church occurred in 1731, 1755, 1869, 1930 and from 2007-2013. In 1731 the walls were plastered and a new wing was added, while in 1755 the first box pews and two windows were built. Two stoves were finally installed in 1822. Between 2007 and 2013, the exterior of the building and steeple were restored, the first “privy” was put in place, security systems were modernized and beams were reinforced.

Entrance to the Old Ship Church

The First Parish Church has been listed as a National Historic Landmark since 1960. Subsequently, the National Register of Historic Places added it in 1966. Since 1961 it has been formally known as the First Parish of Hingham Unitarian Universalist.

Edward T. Howe, Ph.D., is Professor of Economics, Emeritus, at Siena College near Albany, N.Y.

Images: Hingham distance marker: By Timothy Valentine – https://www.flickr.com/photos/el_ramon/2308339263/in/set-72157604041449617/, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5748674. Old Ship Church in 1933 Historic American Buildings Survey, C. (1933) Old Ship Church, 88 Main Street, Hingham, Plymouth County, MA. Massachusetts Hingham Plymouth County, 1933. Documentation Compiled After. [Photograph] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/ma0440/. Interior of the Old Ship Church By Michael Carter – https://www.flickr.com/photos/michaelcarter/269096379/, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6286653. Entrance to Old Ship Church By Timothy Valentine – https://www.flickr.com/photos/el_ramon/3859250195/, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7665228.

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