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Old South Meeting House

Saving the Historic Gas Station

Once New Englanders decided to save the historic Old South Meeting House in 1876, they began to preserve other kinds of historic properties. They saved private homes, taverns, barns, bridges and dams. And then in 1978, New England began saving the historic gas station.

A look at the humble gas station reminds us of how our lives and our landscape changed with the automobile.

Historic gas stations reflect car culture, pop culture, corporate standardization and a kind of customer service that today seems quaint, according to a 2008 Preservation Brief of the National Park Service.

“Across the United States, however, gas stations are slowly being rediscovered for their historic significance,” reported the Brief. “They have even been included on statewide endangered property lists.”

The Historic Gas Station

The invention of the gas pump around the turn of the 20^th century allowed small businesses to sell gas. Car dealers, hardware stores and grocery stores made contracts with refiners. They then installed the pumps and sold gas on the curbside.

Stand-alone gas stations started out as wood or metal shacks. Then they evolved with sturdier material, prefabricated metal sheds or brick. Perhaps they had steel windows and some decoration.

The A.C. Smith Co. gas station

The A.C. Smith & Co. gas station in Quincy, Mass., built in 1926, got listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996 as an early functional gas station.

In the 1920s, gas stations began to pop up in residential neighborhoods. The neighbors complained about the way they looked, so gas stations began to look like houses. The English cottage or Tudor revival look was especially popular.

A Tudor revival gas station converted to a new use.

By then, the petroleum business had grown intensely competitive, and companies started to compete with unusual architecture. For example, Art’s Auto in Pawtucket has square towers with roofs shaped like pyramids at the corner. A large round bay projects from the center with a conical roof. The historic gas station was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, but Anchor Financial now uses the building as an office.

The former Art’s Auto historic gas station in Pawtucket, R.I.

Colonial Revival

The popularity of historic revival architecture extended to gas stations. Standard Oil especially liked the colonial revival style. So did Boston-based petroleum companies like the Beacon Oil Co., formed in 1919.

Beacon in 1922 hired the architectural firm of Coolidge and Carlson to design Beacon’s prototype station, the “Watertown.” The architects copied elements from Charles Bulfinch’s Massachusetts Statehouse, including columns, balustrade, dome and lantern. Crowning the Watertown’s dome: a globe with lines showing latitude and longitude, to symbolize Boston as the Hub.

The Beacon Gas station in Stoneham, Mass., was a Watertown. It stopped pumping gas after World War II. A series of retailers then moved in, converting it to a produce market, a florist and an ice cream parlor. They didn’t change the building in any significant way, so the National Register of Historic Places listed the historic gas station in 1984.

The Colonial Beacon gas station in Stoneham, Mass. Efforts to save it failed recently.

In Bellows Falls, Vt., the small commercial building at Bridge and Island Streets offers a modest example of a colonial revival gas station. Built in 1935, the National Register of Historic Places listed it in 1990.

Bellows Falls, Vt. gas station

The Box

By the 1930s, oil companies wanted to give an impression of efficiency, cleanliness and standardization. They developed the rectangular box station with large symbols: Shell Oil’s shell, Mobil’s Pegasus and the Texaco star.

historic-gas-stations-star-chevron-new-london

Star Chevron in New London, Conn. Photo courtesy Library of Congress.

During the 1970s, a Connecticut photographer named John Margolies began taking slides of roadside attractions throughout the country. In 2016, the Library of Congress collected his work in the John Margolies Roadside America Photograph Archive.

Margolies’ images convinced people that such buildings are worth saving. Below, the picture he took in 1981 of the Mobil station in North Stamford, Conn.

Revival of the Historic Gas Station

Today, many historic gas stations are deteriorating because commercial development moved away from downtown. In other cases, interstates routed traffic away from them.

But some start-up businesses find them ideal homes. In 1978, Ben & Jerry’s opened its first Scoop Shop in a converted gas station in Burlington, Vt.

In Newport, R.I., a streamlined box-type station became an art gallery, which seems to work well. The service bays function as open exhibit space, and the sales office continues as is.

historic-gas-station-newport-art-gallery

This art gallery was once a gas station.

Some people think the historic gas station worth preserving intact. The National Register of Historic Places has listed at least 125 historic gas stations throughout the United States.

The National Park Service even offers guidelines on preserving historic gas stations. For example, preservationists should keep key features, like the V-shaped canopy on Phillips 66 gas stations. It’s also important to keep the roofs the way they were. Tudor revival gas stations should have slate roofs, while the streamlined 1950s versions should have flat roofs.

In 1978, a scholar named John Jakle wrote a study, The American Gasoline Station, 1920 to 1970. In it, he wrote,

They deserve serious attention from historical geographers, architectural historians, and other scholars concerned with the built environment.

A Reader Writes From Boston…

I would like to notify NEHS about what is perhaps the last remnant of the old ESSO gas stations anywhere.

If one goes south (outbound) on Mass Ave to the intersection of Melnea Cass and Southampton St, one can see a domed structure, blue, I think, directly ahead. Though much altered, I am quite sure that it is an old gas station (to the right is the old brick gas storage building that is now a hotel).

A–can someone verify it as an old ESSO station?

and

B–is it worth saving in some way?

If you enjoyed this story, you may also want to read about the glory days of the Berlin Turnpike here.

Images: Colonial Beacon Gas station in Stoneham By User:Magicpiano – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9812615. A.C. Smith By Jameslwoodward – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8321089. Art’s Auto By By John Phelan – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25517406. bellow’s falls By Beyond My Ken – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=60097838. All Library of Congress images from the John Margolies Roadside America photograph archive (1972-2008), Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division.

This story was updated in 2022.

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John Rowe Takes the Middle Path in the American Revolution

John Rowe was a prominent Boston merchant, socialite and politician at the time of the American Revolution. Born in England in 1715 he died in America in 1787. In between, he made a fortune in America.

Rowe placed business as his primary concern. His politics reflected his priorities, as he tried very hard to take neither side in the fight between England and America.

Here are 10 facts about the man who managed to stay neutral through the Revolutionary War.

John Rowe

1. Rowe’s Wharf Named for Him.

John Rowe was a land developer as well as a ship owner. He owned vast swaths of property, and today his name remains a Boston landmark. He is the Rowe of Rowe’s Wharf, the location of the Boston Harbor Hotel. It is built on a wharf Rowe owned.

1899 map of Boston showing Rowes Wharf

2. He Took Part in the Loyal Nine.

When Britain passed the Stamp Act of 1765, a group of Boston businessmen organized a secret organization, called the Loyal Nine. They intended to agitate and prevent the act from going into effect. The Loyal Nine ushered in the Sons of Liberty, who instigated the riot that destroyed colonial governor Thomas Hutchinson‘s home in 1765.

3. He Owned a Tea Party Ship.

Rowe owned the Eleanor, which was carrying a cargo of tea in Boston Harbor on the day of the Boston Tea Party in 1773. The ship was raided as part of the protest against the Tea Act, and the tea it contained dumped into the harbor. Rowe was a member of the Boston “Donation Committee,” which coordinated the dispersal of funds contributed to Massachusetts to offset the suffering caused by the British blockade of the port (retaliation for the Boston Tea Party).

The Boston Tea Party

4. ‘Salt water and tea,’ he said.

Rowe’s role in the Boston Tea Party has been debated for centuries. One account of the events of the day of the Tea Party suggests Rowe attended a meeting in Boston’s Old South Meeting House. He was heard to say, “perhaps salt water and tea will mix tonight.” Some suggested that meant he supported the protest. Several witnesses noted his presence at the meeting. Some suggested he was one of the rioters who tossed tea into the harbor. Rowe’s diary, however, says he stayed at home all day, feeling ill. Of the tea party, he wrote, “this might, I believe, have been prevented. I am sincerely sorry for the event.”

5. The British Pillaged His Belongings.

Rowe did not flee Boston during the British siege of the city at the start of the Revolution, as John Hancock and Sam Adams did. But he was not fully in British favor. When British troops evacuated the city they ransacked his store and stole a good deal of his merchandise.

The British evacuating Boston

6. He Did Not Favor War.

Though there is no record that Rowe was a pacifist, he did not favor war against Britain. He believed his whole life that the conflict between Britain and America could be resolved through negotiation. This put him at odds with John Hancock and Sam Adams.

7. He Smuggled.

Part of John Rowe’s fortune came from smuggling. This was not uncommon, as businesses worked to find ways around British trade and tax regulations. Rowe and others, such as Hancock, never recorded how much of their fortunes came from illegal activities.

8. Thomas Hutchinson Disliked Him.

Rowe, who was very active socially, had a remarkable number of friends and acquaintances on both sides of the political debate. He counted both Samuel Adams and colonial governor Thomas Hutchinson as friends, yet both opposed him politically. Adams ran against Rowe for office and backed John Hancock against Rowe in political contests.

Thomas Hutchinson in 1750.

Hutchinson, meanwhile, thought Rowe belonged to the group behind the destruction of his home in the Stamp Act riot of 1765. Hutchinson wrote: “When there is occasion to burn or hang effigies or pull down houses, these [rabble] are employed; but since government has been brought to a system, they are somewhat controlled by a superior set consisting of the mastermasons, and carpenters, &c., of the town of Boston. When anything of more importance is to be determined, as opening the custom-house on any matter of trade, these are under the direction of a committee of the merchants, Mr. Rowe at their head . . .”

9. He Survived the 1765 Financial Panic.

Nathaniel Wheelwright was a prominent Boston merchant whose businesses collapsed spectacularly in January of 1765. Wheelwright fled the city, but he left behind debts of more than £150,000, an enormous sum. In his diary Rowe notes that the panic touched him indirectly as he had lent money to friends who had loaned money to Wheelwright, and his friends failed financially. Reflecting Wheelwright’s preference for business over politics, his diary contains far more discussion of the bankruptcy and mediation proceedings to settle the debt than the politics of the day.

10. He Most Likely Owned Slaves.

Slavery was not the economic engine in the northern colonies that it was in the south, but slaves existed in the mid 1700s. Rowe advertised in 1746 that he would like to purchase some slaves that could work as carpenters for him.

This story updated in 2022.

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Joseph Warren, The Patriot Who Might Have Made Us Forget George Washington

Joseph Warren, say some today, would have been the first president of the United States had he not been killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill.

Joseph Warren about 1765, by John Singleton Copley

Had Warren lived, said Loyalist Peter Oliver in 1782, George Washington would have been ‘an obscurity.’

British Gen. Thomas Gage said the death of Joseph Warren was ‘worth the death of 500 men.’

Counties in 14 states bear the name of Joseph Warren, as do four towns in New England (New Hampshire and Rhode Island each have a Warren named after Sir Peter). Five ships were named after him, four statues bearing his likeness are on display and a street in Detroit is named ‘Warren Avenue.’

So what was so special about Joseph Warren?

Joseph Warren

Unlike John Hancock, Joseph Warren didn’t have a wealthy uncle who took him under his wing when his father died. But Joseph Warren was ambitious, both for wealth and for glory.

He had taken to heart the words of his father: “I would rather a son of mine were dead than a coward.”

Joseph Warren was just 14 and about to enter Harvard in 1755 when his father was killed falling off a ladder while picking apples. His mother, Mary Stevens Warren, mortgaged the farm to send him to Harvard, though she probably could have used more of his help to run it.

After graduating from Harvard, he married a 17-year-old heiress, Elizabeth Hooten, in 1764. She died eight years later, leaving him with two young sons and two young daughters.

Joseph Warren became the youngest doctor in Boston and one of the best, with a stellar list of clients including Sam Adams, John Hancock, John Adams and his family. He saved 7-year-old John Quincy Adams’ finger from amputation.

Paul Revere

Warren also had Loyalist patients: the children of Thomas Hutchinson, British Gen. Thomas Gage and his wife Margaret. After his wife died, Joseph Warren is believed by some to have had an affair with Margaret Gage. She may have tipped him off about the British plans to raid Concord and arrest Hancock and Adams.

It was Joseph Warren who enlisted Paul Revere and William Dawes to spread the alarm on April 19, 1775.

Most Influential Patriot

Of Joseph Warren, military historian Ethan Rafuse wrote, “No man, with the possible exception of Samuel Adams, did so much to bring about the rise of a movement powerful enough to lead the people of Massachusetts to revolution.”

The Old South Meeting House in 1898

Joseph Warren was gregarious, charming and a powerful speaker who enlisted in the patriot cause. He became Grand Master of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew when Paul Revere was the secretary. He was also a member of the Sons of Liberty. He tried to save Christopher Seider, the young boy killed in 1770 by British soldiers.

To commemorate the second anniversary of the Boston Massacre, he delivered a speech at the Old South Meeting House while wearing a toga.

In the fall of 1774, Joseph Warren wrote the Suffolk Resolves, which supported a boycott of British goods and urged armed resistance to the British.

By the first months of 1775 he was the most influential patriot leader in Massachusetts. Hancock and the Adamses were in Philadelphia attending the Second Continental Congress, and Warren, just 33, was the president of the Provincial Congress – Massachusetts’ shadow government.

Bunker Hill

The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill by John Trumbull.

Joseph Warren belonged to the Committee of Safety. He had made sure powder and arms were stored in towns throughout Massachusetts. He also tried to organize Massachusetts’ fighting forces into an ‘army of observation,’ and he propagandized so they’d be willing to fight.

On the day of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, he sneaked out of Boston and led militia in harassing the British returning to the city. He then returned to Boston, where he organized soldiers for the siege of Boston and negotiated with Gage.

Joseph Warren Dies in the Battle of Bunker Hill

On June 13, colonial leaders learned the British planned to send troops to take the unoccupied hills surrounding the besieged city. That night, 1,200 colonial troops stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed’s Hill and built an earthworks.

Warren had been commissioned a major general in the Massachusetts militia. However, he insisted on fighting as a private in the thick of the battle. He asked Gen. Israel Putnam where the heaviest fighting would be.

Joseph Warren conferring with Israel Putnam before the Battle of Bunker Hill.

During the battle he fought behind the earthworks until the patriots exhausted their ammunition. He stayed there to give the militia time to escape while the British made their final assault. A British officer then recognized him and shot him in the head. He died instantly, six days after his 34^th birthday.

The British stripped his body and stabbed it beyond recognition, then threw him into a shallow grave with another patriot killed in the battle. Paul Revere later identified his body.

The day after the battle, Abigail Adams wrote to her husband:

I have just heard that our dear Friend Dr. Warren is no more but fell gloriously fighting for his Country-saying better to die honourably in the field than ignominiously hang upon the Gallows. Great is our Loss. He has distinguished himself in every engagement, by his courage and fortitude, by animating the Soldiers & leading them on by his own example.

More on that Battle

Interested in the Battle of Bunker Hill? You might want to read what it was like for Abigail Adams and her young son to watch it from 10 miles away.

Many others watched the battle from hills and rooftops, including this 10-year-old Loyalist who told her granddaughter what it was like.

Or you might want to read about the printer’s apprentice who spent 107 days in a British prison for cheering the patriot side while watching the battle.

The most detailed account of the battle came from someone who fought in it: a private named Peter Brown who enlisted after he heard the news of Lexington and Concord. The British, he wrote, got a ‘choaky mouthful.’

The news about the Battle of Bunker Hill threw the surrounding towns into a panic. Read the first-person account of a Salem doctor who thought the British had reached the next town.

Here is a more detailed description of the death of Joseph Warren.

Paul Revere was a man of many talents. He became the first odontologist when he identified the Warren’s body nine months after the battle ended.

This story was updated in 2022.

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Puritan Easter, or The Devil’s Holiday

John Winthrop famously wrote in his journal that the Arbella departed for the New World on Easter Monday – March 29, 1630. But the Puritan Easter would soon disappear from his records.

Portrait of John Winthrop, American Antiquarian Society. No Puritan Easter for him.

Upon arriving in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Winthrop and his fellow Puritans took pains to avoid even mentioning the word “Easter.”

The Puritans wanted to abolish all references to pagan gods and popish rituals. The Bible didn’t mention holidays, they reasoned, so saints’ days and feast days were nothing more than Roman inventions.

“They for whom all days are holy can have no holiday,” they liked to say.

No Puritan Easter for Samuel Sewall either

Judge Samuel Sewall, the Puritan diarist born in 1652, once wrote in his journal that he’d been given an almanac. He crossed out all the papist holidays in the new book. “I blotted against Feb. 14, Valentine, March 25, Annunciation of the B. Virgin; April 24, Easter; Sept. 29, Michaelmas; Dec. 25 Christmas; and no more,” he wrote.

Puritan Easter

The early Puritans didn’t like Easter any more than they liked Christmas. They banned Christmas in 1659, fining anyone five shillings for celebrating the holiday. They ignored Easter, Whitsunday and other holidays. May Day celebrations, which included the hated Maypole, were punished severely.

The Puritans did loosen up one Anglican tradition. Unlike the Anglicans, they allowed marriage to take place during Lent. And they sometimes observed Fast Day on Good Friday.

Puritan Easter worship, without the ‘Easter.’

Easter posed a few problems, though. It always fell on a Sunday, and Puritan preachers weren’t sure what they should say in their sermons. The usual solution was to preach about something other than Easter.

They also couldn’t ignore Easter, because they determined Election Day by the Easter calendar. Election Day was actually one of the four important secular holidays the Puritans celebrated, along with Commencement Day, Thanksgiving and Training Day.

Puritans thought it unchristian to use the names of heathenish deities. For a while, they managed to abandon the word ‘Monday’ and all the rest of the days of the week, as well as the names of the months.

So Sunday, derived from the Teutonic name for its sun deity, Sonntag, became simply the first. Monday was the second, Tuesday the third, and so forth.

The Puritans also called the months by numbers, with March being the first and February the twelfth.

Eventually, the traditional names for days and months crept back into the Puritan vocabulary.

Devil on the March

Sir Edmond Andros, bigoted papist

The Puritans weren’t the only people living in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Anglicans, Huguenots and Catholics, for example, had also immigrated to the New World.

When King James II took the English throne, he consolidated the northeastern colonies. Then in 1686 he appointed Sir Edmund Andros governor of the Dominion of New England.

It wouldn’t end well. Neither James nor Andros were fans of the Puritans. And the Puritans considered Andros a “bigoted papist.”

When Andros came to Massachusetts, he restored the popish holidays, celebrated royal holidays and allowed a Maypole in Charlestown. Puritan minister Increase Mather was appalled. The devil had “begun his march of triumph,” he wrote.

The Puritans had forced Anglicans to hold services in the open air. Andros wrangled with the Puritan theocracy, and he insisted on holding Anglican services at Old South Meeting House. On Good Friday in 1687, he ordered the sexton to open the doors of Old South and ring the bell for ‘those of the Church of England.’ Whether Andros persuaded or coerced the sexton is not known, but the doors opened, the bell rang and the service went forward.

The Puritans could not forgive that particular affront. They revolted in 1689 and sent Andros packing back to England.

This story about Puritan Easter was updated in 2022.

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Thomas Prince, New England’s First History Nut

Perhaps Thomas Prince can be forgiven for taking eight years to write about the first decade of New England’s history, since he started with Adam, as in Adam and Eve.

He was a Puritan minister in Boston who became infatuated with history at a young age. He is considered a pioneer of historical writing because he relied on original texts and strove for accuracy. He influenced future historians such as Jeremy Belknap and Thomas Hutchinson (who was also governor of Massachusetts Bay).

Thomas Prince was born May 15, 1687 in Sandwich, Mass., the fourth child of Samuel Prince and Mercy Hinkley. He graduated from Harvard in 1707 and then began work on his master’s degree.

Thomas Prince, Historian

Thomas Prince

When he was in Harvard, he happened to read about the Cottonian Library, a private book collection that formed the foundation of the British Library. It excited in Prince ‘a zeal of laying hold of every book, pamphlet, and paper, both in print and manuscript, which are either written by persons who lived here, or that have any tendency to enlighten our history.’

In 1709 he began two years of travel, to the West Indies and Madeira, then went to England where he preached until 1717. Homesick, he returned to Boston, where he was ordained in 1718. He was appointed pastor of the Old South Meeting House.

During his foreign travels, he wrote that he ‘found the want of a regular history of this country every where complained of,’ and he decided to write it himself.

He began work on A Chronological History of New England, in the Form of Annals in 1728. He didn’t finish the first volume until 1736, which only recorded events to Sept. 7, 1630. His publisher told him the book was getting too big to be published. It did not sell.

Prince soldiered on with a second three-volume set, which went up to 1633. “I have done my utmost, first to find out the truth, and then to relate it in the clearest order,” he wrote. “I have laboured after accuracy, and yet I dare not say that I am without mistake.”

His work contains painstaking detail once it finishes with the history of mankind. He worked hard at pinning down exact dates. For example, on May 16, 1631: “An alarm to all our towns in the night, by a piece shot off; [but where, could not be known] and the Indians having sent us word the day before that the Mohawks are coming down against them and us.”

On July 22, 1631, “The White Angel comes into the bay, (and) lands their twenty-one heifers.”

His history ends in 1633. In the 1740s he got involved with the First Great Awakening, inviting George Whitefield to preach in Boston.

Prince spent his life collecting historical manuscripts, which he stored in the steeple of Old South Meeting House. During the American Revolution, British soldiers scattered the invaluable collection in the streets of Boston before evacuating the city.

The town of Princeton, Mass., was named after him because of his reputation and his ownership of land within the town.

Thomas Prince died on Aug. 22, 1758.

This story was updated in 2017.

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The Puritanical Controversy Over the Meetinghouse Stove

Perhaps nothing revealed the puritanical contempt for comfort so much as the absence of a meetinghouse stove. The Puritans believed their religious zeal could warm them in unheated buildings, even in freezing New England winters.

The Old Ship Church in Hingham, Mass., didn’t have a stove until 1822. Photo courtesy Library of Congress.

And it did get cold. Samuel Sewall on Jan. 24, 1686, reported in his diary, “The communion bread was frozen pretty hard and rattled sadly into the plates.”

No matter how cold it got, no matter how much coughing in the meetinghouse, the Puritans brought babies were in on the Sunday after their birth to be baptized – with cold water.

Alice Morse Earle wrote in 1891 that people still alive remembered a universal and ‘noisy turning up of great-coat collars, the swinging of arms, and knocking together of the heavy-booted feet of the listeners towards the end of a long winter sermon.’

Some Puritan churches like the Old South Meeting House allowed foot stoves. But they recognized the danger of fire. In December 1771 the sexton of Old South had instructions to search the meetinghouse for any foot stoves left behind and to take them home. The owner then had to retrieve them and “make reasonable satisfaction” to the sexton for his trouble.

Other congregations were more puritanical – or at least more fearful of fire. The First Church of Roxbury banned foot stoves in its rebuilt meetinghouse after it burned down in 1747. Congregants warmed their feet instead with hot stones in baskets, or fur bags or even the family dog.

Enter the Meetinghouse Stove

The meetinghouse stove at the Society of Friends, Sabbathday Lake, Maine. Photo courtesy Library of Congress.

The Puritan congregations gradually relaxed and began to accept the meetinghouse stove. The comfort-loving libertines of Hadley, Mass., bought an iron stove for their meetinghouse in 1734.

Warmth did not come to the Puritan meetinghouse without controversy.

In 1819, the Puritans of Brimfield, Mass., finally acquiesced and decided to buy a meetinghouse stove, but one old parishioner refused to contribute. He said good preaching kept him hot enough without a stove. Members of the Old Ship Church in Hingham, Mass., held fast against warmth until 1822, nearly 150 years after the building went up in 1681.

Henry Ward Beecher

The Puritans of Litchfield, Conn., provided an entertaining drama over the introduction of the meetinghouse stove. The same thing may have happened in other towns. The Rev. Henry Ward Beecher told the story.

The meeting started on a warm Sunday after the installation of the meetinghouse stove, but no one lit a fire. A deacon’s wife, unalterably opposed to the stove, thought it was lit. The imaginary fire so overheated her she fainted and got carried out of the church. A man who favored the meetinghouse stove then approached it, warming his hands and making sure his coat didn’t get scorched.

Even the Puritans thought that was funny.

This story last updated in 2022.

Image: Interior of the Old Ship Church By Michael Carter – https://www.flickr.com/photos/michaelcarter/269096379/, CC BY-SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6286653.

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